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NEW INDUCTIVE GRAMMAR 



OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 



FOUNDED ENTIRELY ON THE PRINCIPLE 



OF RELATIONS: 



SOLOMON BARRETT, 

AUTHOR OP A SERIES OF GRAMMARS, ENGLISH, LATIN, GREEK, GERMAN, 
SPANISH AND FRENCH. 



u He brought in a new way of arguing by induction." — Baker. 
"One word belongs to another." — Barrett. 




BOSTON: $%• 

PUBLISHED BY HIGGIXS, BRADLEY & DAYTON. 
1859. 












Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1858, 

By SOLOMON BARRETT, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the 
Southern District of Ohio. 

Electrotyped at the Franklin Type Foundry, Cin cinnati, O. 



PRINTED BY 
GEO. C. RAND & AVEP.Y. 






PEEEACE. 



The object and design of this work may be expressed 
in two words, Utility and Progress. The author has 
aimed to make the work practically useful, by construct- 
ing it on those simple principles of Relations which 
existed antecedent to, and independent of any written 
treatise on Grammar. 

And by condensing and abbreviating all subjects of 
minor importance, by collecting and classifying various 
subjects under one general head, by avoiding, to a con- 
siderable extent, the discussion of those points about 
which grammarians differ, by preparing exercises in 
blank, to be filled and worked out by the student, thus 
teaching him to use the language correctly, the author 
flatters himself that he has succeeded in removing from 
the path of the student every obstacle of importance 
that might have obstructed his progress. 

The Tables (or Scales), which have been prepared to 
exhibit the relations of words and phrases, may not im- 
properly be denominated The Constitution of English 
Grammar ; because the parts of speech in Grammar are 
constituted by these Eelations, since every definition 
and rule (law) of Grammar, to be of any validity or 
force must be founded on, and conform to one of these Ee- 
lations; and, as the Tables contain the Supreme Laws 
of Grammar, every Eule or definition not based on these 
Relative principles, is not only false, but n*jll and void. 



(3) 



NOTE TO THE TEACHEE. 



Let the scholars commence parsing at once. They 
should repeat the parsing lessons as given on page 32, 
and following, until they have committed them to 
memory. By this means, they will be led, almost at 
once, to a knowledge- of the true relations of words, 
which constitute the whole framework of grammar, and 
on which alone the Eules and definitions are founded. 

The scholars are not expected to learn anything more 
than the "coarse print;'" though the accompanying 
observations should always be read over a sufficient 
number of times to enable the student to answer the 
questions given at the bottom of each page, as they 
serve to give a better knowledge of the general subject. 

Let the teacher recollect that scholars learn more by 
oral instruction than by committing Rules to memory. 
They should be required to demonstrate a great num- 
ber of sentences on the black-board, after the manner 
of the Exercises given on page 29 and 38. 

It will be found a very interesting and instructive 
exercise to let the various classes unite in one, and parse 
in concert. The author has tried it with great success. 

The marked exercises, commencing on page 70, will 
be found of great benefit both to pupil and teacher; 
but one thing should be strictly borne in mind : 

Never allow a pupil to parse a word until he has 
given it a relation, by joining it to the word to 
which it belongs; nor to leave the " black-board 
exercises" until they are perfectly understood.^ 

An ordinary term of three months is sufficient to 
communicate, to a child of common capacity, a good 
knowledge of the principles of grammar. 

* No Student, Teacher, nor Author is able to parse a word of 
whose relation he is ignorant. To give the relation is to parse. 
(4) 



INTRODUCTION. 



The Black-board is a modern invention, and is found 
to be of great practical utility, by enabling the teacher 
to hold a direct communication with his class, and 
daguerreotypiirg, as it were, the principles of an art or 
science directly upon the mind or brain of the student. 
For let it be remembered, that at the very moment the 
delineations or demonstrations are being made on the 
board, they are, at the same time, indelibly written on 
the brain of each student, not to be forgotten or effaced 
like impressions made on the board ; but which are to 
remain as part and parcel of his education as long as 
he lives. As the largest fortune is only the accumu- 
lated savings of years of industry, so the finest educa- 
tion is the result of the hoardings and savings of 
thought — the remembered impressions made on the 
brain through the medium of the five common senses, 
as the cause, manner or instrument by which the com- 
munication is made. As impressions made on the mind 
by seeing, are more important and lasting than those 
made by any other of the senses, the instructor or edu- 
cator should make a constant use of this faculty in 
communicating his instructions. 

Now, as the black-board is used to demonstrate almost 
every science or study taught at schools, except, as a 
general thing, that of English grammar, the author of 
this work has sought to remedy this defect by prepar- 
ing exercises especially for the black-board, and ar- 
ranging them in such a way that the pages themselves 
represent the black-board, giving the exercises in blank, 
to be filled with pencil by the student, or transferred to 

(5) 



6 INTRODUCTION. 

the black-board itself, and there demonstrated in fall. 
By this method the lesson is presented to the whole 
class at once, and the reason or relation on which the 
definitions and rules are founded becomes at once ap- 
parent, being a deduction from the relations themselves ; 
for every rule is reasonable if the reason on which it is 
founded is understood, and made the base on which the 
rule is to rest; for an arbitrary rule means nothing- 
more, in the mind of the novitiate, thai; a rule resting 
on unknown principles. Hence it comes to pass, that 
students have, for ages, been learning " Rules " and 
" Definitions," Jboth in arithmetic and grammar, with- 
out understanding the principles on which these Eules 
and Definitions are founded. The principle, origin, or 
foundation of a thing must be known before the rule or 
law of its nature can be understood. The relation is 
the substance : the rule or definition, the shadow of 
that substance. 

The only method to render the study of grammar 
itiviting and interesting to children possessing^reasoning 
faculties, is to communicate to them a true knowledge 
of the principles , on which the science about to bo 
taught is founded ; for no person ever becomes inter- 
ested in playing a gamfc of draughts, chess, cards, etc., 
until he understands the principles of the game; other- 
wise, he will be compelled to make all his moves, as it 
were, by chance, without any guide to direct him. No 
one becomes fond of fishing or gunning until he is ex- 
pert in those sports. 

On receiving a new book, a child first looks for the 
pictures, for the simple reason that he can understand 
them, by comparing them (mentally) with the real ob- 
jects in nature which they represent. The comparing 
of any two objects, as a horse with the picture of a horse, 
etc., involves a process of reasoning, and forming con- 
clusions. 



INTRODUCTION. 7 

The object of arranging the words in columns, in the 
Black-board exercises, is to analyze the sentence before 
the student commences to parse it; for the mere act of 
placing the words in this position is the simplest plan 
of analysis, especially for children, that could be given; 
and gives the student a better opportunity of exercising 
his judgment in uniting the words again, according to 
their synthetic relation. 

Analysis is placing the ivords in a column. 
Synthesis is the reduplication of these words. 

The student will be guided in doubling these words 
by the natural relation which they hold to each other; 
for each word in a sentence has some other word or 
words with which it naturally unites itself, independent 
of arbitrary rules or laws. 

Let it be remembered that the separating of a sentence 
into words, constitutes analysis, (or etymology,) and the 
reunion of these words, so as to reproduce the original 
sentence, or to exhibit their grammatical relations, con- 
stitutes synthesis or syntax; and that a thorough know- 
ledge of analysis and synthesis renders the scholar a 
finished grammarian. 

It is not only desirable, but essentially necessary, that 
the teacher should pronounce each of these words sepa- 
rately, after the manner of spelling lessons, that the 
pupils may give it a relation by joining it to (speaking it 
with) some other word or words, to which it has a natu- 
ral dependent relation: on the 29th page 
the teacher pronounces: and the pupil responds: 

"The"— "The sun" 

"sun" — "sun went" 

"went"— "sun went" 

"down." "went down." 

"nor" "the sun went nor the carnage ceased." 

In this way any teacher that can teach a class to spell, 
can teach it grammar. 



THESES. 



1. The Etymology of a word depends entirely on its 
Syntax, or relation to another word ; hence, a word 
that has no Syntax can have no Etymology : i. e., be- 
fore any word becomes a part (of speech) of a sentence, 
it must be incorporated into that sentence of which it 
is a part. 

2. The Case of nouns and pronouns is that relation 
or position which they have to another word; therefore, 
a word having no relation to any other word, is in no 
case or position whatever ; as, nominative, man ; posses- 
sive, man's ; objective, man. Now, the word man, as 
arranged above, is in no case, neither 'is it a " part of 
speech." 

3. A word never becomes a noun or any other part 
of speech by being used technically, or independent of 
its meaning; but by having the syntax of a noun (or 
other part of speech), as John is a scholar: is is a verb, 
them is a pronoun, in which John, is and them become 
nouns by having the syntax of nouns. 

4. Detached words, as arranged in the columns of 
spelling books and lexicons, are no parts (of speech or) 
of a sentence, until they are actually used in a sentence. 

5. Every word, before it becomes a part of speech or 
sentence, and before it can be parsed, must be collected 
to not more than two 9 nor less than one other word, 
called the single and double relation. 

Note. — The interjection being a virtual sentence, has no relation, 
except with the vocative or case independent. 



(8) 



PART I. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 



The Philosophy of Grammar is only that relation 
which exists between our ideas or modes of thinking, 
and the words used to express such ideas. That is, a 
sentence is only the embodiment of our thoughts, and 
affords the best and only reliable means of tracing the 
origin of words. The structure of a language being 
based on these mental operations, is, therefore, aj^pli- 
cable to all languages, each of which is only a different 
method of expressing the same idea. 

Thoughts constitute ideas. 
Speech constitutes language. 

Language, derived from the Latin lingua, the tongue, 
is a succession of mental ideas expressed in words, and 
may be either spoken or written. 

As our ideas are of different kinds, so there are differ- 
ent kinds or classes of words, called Parts of Speech, 
•used to express such ideas. 

In all operations of the mind, we either entertain a 
single idea,* or compare two ideas. The latter consti- 
tutes a Proposition. A Proposition is, therefore, a 
judgment of the mind, expressed in words. 

* The expression of a single idea constitutes a simple sentence. 

(9) 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A judgment of the mind is an opinion. 

In forming an opinion, the mind naturally first sug- 
gests the subject. The quality or description of the 
subject is called the attribute. 

Every subject must be in a state of existence or action; 
and this 'existence or action constitutes the predicate. 

A sentence or proposition is formed by the union of 
the subject and predicate. 



Subject. 


Predicate. 


John 


walks. 


Jessamine 


clambers. 



As a judgment of the mind consists in comparing two 
ideas, so a proposition must consist of three parts: 1. 
The being or subject ; 2. The quality or attribute ; and 3. 
A verb to join the attribute to its subject. 

All words, besides the subject and predicate, found in 
a sentence are complements (or completements), and are 
joined to the subject or attribute to complete the sense. 

" The jessamine clambers, in flower, o'er the thatch." 

The, in flower, and o'er the thatch, are complements 
of jessamine and clambers. 

To analyze is to ascertain the different parts of which 
a thing is composed, and to reduce any compound to its 
simple elements. 

A sentence is comprised within a period, and, in 
written language, terminates at a full point or stop.* 
Every sentence must contain, at least, one simple pro-* 
position. 

Propositions or sentences are of two kinds, principal 
and dependent. 

Every being or subject contains and concentrates 
within itself the qualities, the existence, the action and 

* See division of sentences, page 181. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 11 

manner of acting which are afterward drawn out and ex- 
pressed by other words. 

(See frontispiece.) 

God is the subject. 

Hath spoken is the predicate. 

And every other word in the sentence is a complement 
of either the subject, God, or the predicate, hath spoken. 

God is the trunk ; and every other word or phrase is 
a branch of that trunk, and depends upon it for sup- 
port. The relative proposition, who spake at sundry 
times, etc., is a dependent complement of God, and has 
a direct relation to that word; while the phrases, in 
these latter days, unto us, by his Son, are complements of, 
and hold a direct relation to the predicate hath spoken, 
and an indirect relation through that predicate to the 
subject God, expressing the time when, the person to 
whom, and the person by whom God hath spoken. Hence 
every word in the sentence has either a direct or indirect 
relation to God in the trunk. 

All the parts of speech are determined by a process 
of interrogation, in which each word, successively, be- 
comes the subject of the question. 

Thus : — The subject is found by interrogating the verb, 
as who hcfih spoken? answer, God. Hence, God is the 
subject, or nominative. To find the predicate, interro- 
gate the subject. What hath God done? God hath 
spoken. Hence, hath spoken is the predicate. By a simi- 
lar process of interrogation, each part of speech may 
be determined with precision, as it leads at once to the 
syntactic relation of the words. 

In analyzing a sentence, you should first reduce it to 
simple propositions. 

First Proposition. 
The jessamine clambers in flower o'er the thatch; 

Second Proposition. 
And the swallow chirps sweet from her nest in the wall. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

And in analyzing a proposition, you should reduce it 
to its constituent parts by separating subject, predicate 
and complements from each other. 

Comp. Subj. Predicate. Comp. Comp. 

The | jessamine | clambers | in flower | o'er the thatch. 

Comp. Subj. Predicate. Comp. Comp. Comp. 

And the | swallow | chirps | sweet | from her nest | in the wall. 

Some tense of the verb to be (i. e., existence*) is always 
expressed or understood in every proposition, coupling 
the predicate to its subject, and is called the copula of 
the proposition. 

Subj. Cop. Predicate. Subj. Cop. Predicate. 

Jessamine | is | clamb'ring. || Swallow | is | chirping. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

" The jessamine clambers in flower o'er the thatch, 
And the swallow chirps sweet from her nest in the wall," 

Is a compound sentence, containing two propositions, 
the first ending at the word thatch, and the second com- 
mencing with and. 

[Read the first proposition, and determine the subject 
by interrogation. What clambers ? Answer \syntax or 
relation), jessamine clambers.] 

Jessamine, the subject. 

[What does the jessamine do? Ans. (rel.), the jessa- 
mine clambers.] 

Clambers, the predicate. 

[The what? Ans., the jessamine.'] 

The is a complement of jessamine. 

[What is in flower ? Jessamine is in flower.'] 

In flower, a complement of jessamine. 

• See definition of verbs, page 103. 



EXERCISES IX ANALYSIS. 13 

[Where clambers the jessamine ? O'er the thatch.'] 
O'er the thatch, complement of clambers. 
[What chirps? Ans. Swallow chirps.'] 
Swallow, the subject. 
[What docs the swallow? Chirps.] 
Chirps, the predicate. 
[How chirps the swallow? Sweet (ly)-] 
Sweet (ly), complement of chirps. 
[Where does she chirp? From her nest.] 
From her nest, complement of chirps. 
[Where is (or was) the nest? In the wall.] 
In the wall, complement of the verb is or was under- 
stood, (i. e«, the nest which is or was in the wall.) 



u God, who at sundry times and in divers manners spake, in times 
past, unto the fathers by the prophets, hath, in these latter days 
spoken unto us by his Son," 

Is a compound sentence, divided into two propositions 
by the word who. (See frontispiece.) 

[Who hath spoken ? God hath spoken.] 

God, the subject. 

[What hath God done? God hath spoken.] 

Hath spoken, the predicate. 

[Who was the God? Ans. God, 
Who, at sundry times and ^ Hence, all this is a com- 



in divers manners, 
spake, in times past, unto 
the fathers, by the 
prophets.] 



plement of the w T ord God, 
to which it is joined by 
the relative Who, in order 
to bound or describe that 
noun. 



The prepositional phrases, in these latter days, unto us, 
by his Son, are all complements of hath spoken. 

And, at sundry times, in divers manners, in times past, 
unto the fathers, by the ptrophets, are all complements of 
the verb {predicate) spake. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

11 The vessel, while the dread event draws nigh, 
Seems more impatient o'er the waves to fly," 

Is a compound sentence, divided into simple propositions 
by the word while. 

Vessel, principal subject. 

Seems, principal predicate. 

Event, dependent subject. 

Draws, dependent predicate. 

The. complement of vessel. 

While the dread event draws nigh, complement of 
to fly. 

More impatient, complement of seems. 

O'er the waves, complement of to fly. 

To fly, complement of seems. 



" Fate spurs her on w 
Is a simple sentence. 
Fate, the subject. 
Spurs, the predicate. 
Her and on, complements of spurs. 



" Thus issuing from afar, 
Advances to the sun some blazing star; 
And, as it feels the attraction's kindling force, 
Springs onward with accelerated course," 

Is a compound sentence, divided into propositions by 
and, and as. 

Star, subject of the entire sentence. 

Advances and Springs,* principal predicates. 

Thus issuing from afar, complement of star.f 

To the sun, complement of advances. 

* If we consider "and springs onward" etc., a complement of ad? 
varices, springs will be a dependent predicate. 
t Connected by the participle. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 15 

Some, blazing, complements of star. 

AS IT FEELS THE ATTRACTION'S KINDLING FORCE, Comple- 
ment of springs. 

The attraction's kindling force, complement of feels. 

Onward, complement of springs. 

With accelerated course, complement of springs. 



11 But,* 0,t thou sacred power, whose law connects 
The eternal chain of causes and effects, 
Let not thy chastening ministers of rage 
Afflict with sharp remorse his feeble age," 

Is a compound sentence, separated into propositions by 
the relative whose, etc. 

Power, independent subject. 

Thou (understood), principal subject. 

Let, principal predicate. 

Sacred, complement of power. 

Whose law connects the eternal chain of causes 
and effects, complement of power. 

Law, dependent subject. 

Connects, dependent predicate. 

The, eternal, complement of chain. 

Chain, complement of connects. 

Of causes and effects, complement of chain. 

Not, complement of let. 

Thy, chastening, complements of ministers. 

Ministers, complement of let. 

Of rage, complement of ministers. 

(To) afflict, with sharp remorse, his feeble age, 
complement of let. 

With sharp remorse, complement of afflict. 

His feeble, complements of age. 

Age, complement of afflict. 

* But, as an adverb, qualifies let, and belongs to that sentence. 
t The interjection has no relation. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Full many a glorious flower and stately tree 
Floats on the ruthless tide, whose unfelt sway 
Moves not the mire that stagnates at the bottom," 

Is a compound sentence, separated into simple proposi- 
tions by dividing at the words whose and that. 

Flower and tree, principal subjects. 

Full many a glorious, complement of flower. 

And stately, complement of tree. 

Floats, principal predicate. 

On the ruthless tide, complement of floats. 

The, Euthless, complements of tide. 

Whose unfelt sway moves not the mire, complement 
of tide. 

Unfelt, complement of sway. 

Sway, dependent subject. 

Moves, dependent predicate. 

Not the mire, complement of moves. 

That stagnates at the bottom, complement of mire. 

That, dependent subject. 

Stagnates, dependent predicate. 

At the bottom, complement of stagnates. 



" The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold ; 
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, 
When blue waves roll nightly on deep Galilee. 

" Like the leaves on the forest, when summer is green, 
That host with their banners at sunset were seen ; 
Like the leaves of the forest when autumn has blown, 
That host on the morrow lay withered and strown. 

" And there lay the steed with his nostril spread wide, 
But through it there rolled not the breath of his pride ; 
And there lay the rider, distorted and pale, 
With the dew on his brow and the rust on his mail. 

" For the angel of death spread his wings on the blast, 
And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed ; 
And the eyes of the sleeper waxed deadly and chill; 
Their hearts but once heaved and forever grew still." 



BLACK-BOARD EXERCISES. 



17 



( The figures refer to the Table of Relations, 'page 28.) 
Subject, Predicate, Complement 



Assyrian 2 



(and™) 
Cohorts 2 



(andM) 
Sheen 2 



(WhenM) 
Waves 2 



Host 2 



(For 16) 

AXOEL 2 



(and 16) 
.2 



« the " 1 
came 9 " down " 12 .« like 14 the wolf," " on 14 

the fold," 



« his " 5 

were gleaming^ " with 14 purple and gold j " 

" the," 1 " of 13 their spears," 
was like 10 " stars 6 on 14 the sea," 

"blue"l 
roll 9 " nightly," 12 on 14 deep Galilee. 

"that"l 
were seen 11 "at 14 sunset" "with 14 their ban- 
ners," "like 14 leaves," "on 14 the 
forest," 



( When 16) 
Summer 2 




" green," 1 # 




is 9 (green) 


(No complement.) 


Host 2 




" that,' 7 1 " withered," 1 " strown." 1 




LAY 9 


" on 14 the morrow," " like 14 leaves," 
"of 13 the forest" 


(WhenM) 






Autumn 2 


HAS BLOWN 


(No complement.) 
(No complement.) 


(andlO) 
Steed 2 




"the"l 




LAY 9 


" there," 12 with 14 his nostril spread 
wide;" 


(£^16) 

Breath 2 




"the,"l "of 13 his pride." 




ROLLED 9 


" not," 12 " there," 12 " through 14 it," 


(andio) 
Rider 2 




" the," 1 -" distorted ? and 15 pale,l 



lay 9 " there " 12 " with 14 the dew " "on l* 

his brow," " and ( — 14) the rust 
on 14 his mail." 



"the,"l "of 13 death" 
spread 16" " his wing," 6 « on 14 the blast ; " 

(No complement.) 
breathed 9 u in 14 the face of the foe," 
2 



18 



Subject 



(as 16) 
He 2 



Eyes 2 



Hearts 2 

1 

{and 16) 
*2 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Predicate. Complement 

(JS T o complement.) 
PASSED ;9 (No complement.) 

" the," l " of is the sleeper " u deadly 
and chill ; 1 
waxed.9 (No complement.) 

"their "5 
heaved 9 « but once " 12 



(No complement.) 
grew 9 still "forever "12 



" His house was known to all the vagrant train ; 
He chid their wand'rings, hut relieved their pain : 
The long-remembered beggar was his guest, 
Whose beard descending, swept his aged breast ; 
The ruined spendthrift, now no longer proud, 
Claimed kindred there, and had his claims allowed. 
Subject Predicate. Complement. 

House 2 "his r 'l 

was known. 11 "to 14 all the vagrant train;' 7 

He 2 (No complement) 

chid 10 u their wand'rings/' 6 



(But 1^) 
, 2 


RELIEVED IO 


(No complement) 
"their pain:" '6 


Beggar 2 




" the," I " long-remembered n 




WAS 9 HIS GUEST 


2 (pred. subj.) 


Beard 2 


SWEPT 10 


" whose," 1 " descending," 1 
u his aged breast."6 


Spendthrift 2 




"the,"l "ruined,"! now no longer 




CLAIMED 10 


proud," 1 
" kindred/' 6 » there," 12 


(%nd) 

• 2 




(No complements 



HAD 10 



" his claims 6 allowed." 



Note. — In these exercises, we make use of the word complement 
instead of either adjunct or modifier, as denoting more correctly the 
class of words which hold a relation to the subject or predicate. Any 
word may be an adjunct, since all words tire joined together, or hold a 
relation to one another; and no words are modifiers except the aux- 
iliary verbs, which serve to point out the various moods, etc. 



BLACK-BOARD EXERCISES. 19 

11 One word belongs to another." 



Sentences : 

[See plate, page £5.] 

I. — The midnight moon serenely smiles 
O'er nature's soft repose; 
No low' ring cloud obscures the sky, 
Nor ruffling tempest blows. 

II. — Now every passion sinks to rest; 
The throbbing heart lies still; 
And varying schemes of life, no more 
Distract the lab' ring will. 

Ill — In silence hushed, to reason's voice 
Attends each mental pow'r; 
Come, dear Amelia, and enjoy 
Keflection's favorite hour. 

IV. — Come, while the peaceful scene invites, 
Let's search this ample round — 
Where shall the lovely fleeting form 
Of happiness be found ? 







ANALYSIS. 






First Verse. 


Subject 


Predicate, 


Complements. 


Moon 


SMILES 


the, midnight 

serenely, o'er nature's soft repose. 


Cloud 


OBSCURES 


no, low' ring 
the sky 



["Nor ruffling tempest blows" is a de- 
pendent conjunctive proposition, connected 
to the preceding sentence by the conj. nor; 
the relation being : cloud obscures sky nor 
tempest blows.'] 



20 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Subject Predicate. Complements. 

Tempest Nor ruffling 



BLOWS 



(No complement.) 



Passion 
Heart 



Schemes 



sinks 



LIES 



Second Verse. 

every 

now, to rest, 

the, throbbing, still 

(No complement) 

[ " And varying schemes of life no more 
distract the lab'ring will" is a dependent 
conjunctive complement of " Heart lies."] 

varying, and of life, 
distract no more, and the lab'ring will. 



Power 
(Thau,)* 



(Thou,)* 



ATTENDS 



COME 



ENJOY 



Third Verse. 

each, mental 

In silence, and to reason's voice. 

dear Amelia f 

(No complement) 

[" And enjoy reflection's fav'rite hour," 
dependent and conjunction, relation to 
" come thou."] 

(No complement.) 
Reflection's fav'rite hour. 



(Thou,)* 
. Scene 
(Thou,)* 
Form 



Fourth Verse. 

(No complement) 
come while the peaceful scene invites 

the, peaceful 
invites (us) understood. 

(No complement) 
let us to search this ample round 

the, lovely, fleeting, and of happiness 
shall be found Where. 



*, Understood. 

f Amelia is the predicate subject, in the case independent. 



ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 21 

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES TO BE ANALYZED IN ACCORDANCE 
WITH THE PRECEDING EXAMPLES. 

1. Not a drum was heard, 

2. Nor a funeral note ; 

3. As his corse to the rampart we hurried. 

4. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot 
O'er the grave where our hero we buried. 

5. We buried him darkly, at dead of night, 
The sods with our bayonets turning ; 

By the struggling moon-beam's misty light, 
And our lanterns dimly burning. 

6. No useless coffin enclosed his breast, 

7. Nor in sheet, nor in shroud we bound him ; 

8. But he lay like a warrior, taking his rest, 
"With his martial cloak around him. 

9. Few and short TOere the prayers we said ; 

10. And we spoke not a word of sorrow ; 

11. But we steadfastly gazed on the face of the dead, 

12. And we bitterly thought of the morrow. 

13. We thought 

14. [As we hollowed his narrow bed, 

15. And smoothed down his lonely pillow,] 

16. That the foe would be rioting over his head, 

17. And we ( ) far away on the billow. 

18. Lightly they '11 talk of the spirit 

19. That 's gone, 

20. And, o'er his cold ashes, upbraid him ; 

21. But nothing he '11 reck 

22. If they let him sleep on, in the grave where a 

Briton has laid him. 

23. But half of our heavy task was done 

24. When the clock tolled the hour for retiring, 

25. And we heard the distant random gun, 

26. That the foe was sullenly firing. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

27. Slowly and sadly we laid him down, 
From the field of his fame, fresh and gory ; 

28. We carved not a line. 29. We raised not a stone; 
30. But left him alone in his glory. 



Great Ocean ! too, that morning, thou the call 

Of restitution heardst, and reverently 

To the last trumpet's voice, in silence, listened. 

Great Ocean ! strongest of creation's sons, 

Unconquerable, unreposed, untired, 

That rolled the wild, profound, eternal bass 

In Nature's anthem, and made music, such 

As pleased £he ear of God !. original, 

Unmarred, unfaded work of Deity, 

And unburlesqued by mortal's puny skill, 

From age to age enduring andt unchanged} 

Majestical, inimitable, vast, 

Loud uttering satire, day and night, on each 

Succeeding race, and little pompous work 

Of man. Unfallen, religious, holy Sea ! 

Thou bowedst thy glorious head to none, fearedst none, 

Heardst none, to none didst honor, but to God 

Thy Maker, only worthy to receive 

Thy great obeisance ! Undiscovered Sea ! 

Into thy dark, unknown, mysterious caves, 

And Secret haunts, unfathomably deep 

Beneath all visible retired, none went, 

And came again, to tell the wonders there* 

Tremendous Sea ! what time thou lifted up 

Thy waves on high, and with thy winds and storms 

Strange pastime took, and shook thy mighty sides 

Indignantly, — the pride of navies fell ; 

Beyond the arm of help, unheard, unseen, 

Sunk friend and foe, with all their wealth and war. 






GEAMMAE. 



Grammar, as a science, treats of the relation 
which letters, words and phrases hold to each 
other. 

And a grammarian is one who understands 
that relation, and is able to unite Ms words in 
such a manner as to speak and write the English 
language with propriety. 

Note. — Principle, from the Latin principium, the begin- 
ning, signifies the origin, beginning, or commencement 
of any art or science : hence the beginning and the end 
— the alpha and omega — of the principles of grammar 
are contained in the simple diction that 

ONE WORD BELONGS TO ANOTHER. 

This must be true ; for to make a word a definite part 
of speech, it must be joined to some other word, as 
shown in the table of relations. 

• A SPEECH 

Is a combination of ivords, forming a sentence or a 
proposition ; as ; " God made the world." 

A PART OF SPEECH 

Is any single word, having one of the twenty-one 
relations contained in the table of relations, page 
28. There are eight parts of speech, as follows : 

What is grammar? What is a grammarian? What is the meaning 
and derivation of the word principle ? What is a speech ? What is a 
part of speech ? How many parts of speech are there ? 

(23 ) 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Nouns, names of persons, places and things. 

Adjectives, quality or extension of nouns. 
Pronouns, words used for nouns. 
Verbs, existence or action of nouns. 

Adverbs, manner of existing or acting. 

Prepositions, words placed before nouns or pronouns. 
Conjunctions, words used to connect words or sentences. 
Interjections, exclamations, having no relation. 

Mr. Murray, after having defined the parts of speech, in his gram- 
mar, accompanies his definitions with this very just and philosophical 
observation : — 

a The preceding definitions and observations may assist the learner, 
in some degree, to establish the different parts of speech; but it 
would be far more interesting to him if he should be able to make out 
the part of speech from its just nature and application." 

By nature and application, Mr. Murray meant nothing more than 
the true relation of words, which is exhibited in the " table of rela- 
tions." Hence, to constitute any word a certain and definite part of 
speech, it must have the nature and application («. e., relation) of such 
part of speech ; for every one of the eighty thousand words in the 
English language must have one of the relations given on the Table. 



GENERAL ORDER OF PARSING. 
THE NOUN. 



is a noun, or name. 



( Common, general name. 
( Proper, appropriated name. 

! Masculine gender, denotes males. 
Feminine gender, denotes females. 
Neuter gender, denotes neither sex. 
f First person, denotes the speaker. 
< Second person, denotes the person spoken to. 
(^ Third person, denotes the person spoken of. 

What are the parts of speech and their definitions ? What is meant 
by the nature and application of a part of speech? What relation must 
every word in the language have? What is the order of parsing a 
noun? (repeat the order of parsing.) 



GENERAL ORDER OF PARSING. 25 

Singular number, denotes but one object. 
Plural number, denotes more than one. 

r jSTominative case, subject of the verb % 

Possessive case, possessing the noun 



Objective case, governed by the preposition _ 
Accusative (objective) case, gov'd by the verb. 
Independent (vocative) case, addressed. 
t Absolute case, before the participle 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

is an adjective, and belongs to 



THE PRONOUN. 
is a {relative or personal) pronoun, stand- 
ing for with which it agrees in gender, person 

and number, case.* 

THE VERB. 

is a verb, expressing existence or action. 

f Eegular, it forms its past tense in ed. 

\ Irregular, it will not form its past tense in ed. 

{Transitive, it governs an object. 
Intransitive, it does not govern an object. 
Passive, having a passive nominative. 
r Indicative, it declares. 
.Potential mood, implies possibility. 
Subjunctive mood, expresses uncertainty. 
Imperative mood, used to command. 
^Infinitive mood, expresses unlimited action. 

Present tense, represents present time. 
Perfect tense, represents present time completed. 
Imperfect tense, represents past time. 
Pluperfect tense, represents past time completed. 
First future, represents future time. 
^ Second future, represents future time completed. 

What is the order of parsing an adjective? A pronoun? A verb? 



• Case of the pronoun is like that of the noun. 

3 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

! First person, sing, or plu., to agree with 
Second person, sing, or plu., to agree with 
Third person, sing, or plu., to agree with 

THE ADVERB. 

. is an adverb, and qualifies 

THE PREPOSITION. 
is a preposition, governing , and 



giving its phrase an relation to 

THE CONJUNCTION. 



is a conjunction, connecting and 

THE INTERJECTION, 
is an interjection, having no relation. 

THE AUXILIARIES. 

is an auxiliary verb, forming the , 

mood and tense of 



is an aux. adjective, qualifying __ 

is an aux. adverb, qualifying 

is an aux. preposition, qualifying 



THE PARTICIPLE. 

is a participle ; as an adjective it belongs 

to ) and as a verb is in the person, 

and number, to agree with _ 



RELATION. 

Avoiding, on the one hand, the technicalities of the 
Greek and Roman rhetoricians, and, on the other, the 
parrot-like systems of many modern authors, we have 



What is the order of parsing an adverb? A preposition? A 
conjunction? An interjection? The auxiliaries? The participle? 
What should we avoid in preparing a grammar? 



RELATION. 27 

constructed a Table of Relations, which shall be a 
measure for every word and sentence, not only in Eng- 
lish, but in all other languages. This table will measure 
words with the same mathematical accuracy that the 
pound weight will measure all ponderous quantities, or 
the gallon measure, liquids ; for, as the pound weight 
is the standard of measure for gravity, and the foot- 
rule the standard for all distances, so is this table a 
complete measure for the parts of speech. 

Every word in the language forms an equation with one of 
the words on the table ; and as the plan of parsing is such 
as to compel the student to compare every word he 
parses with the corresponding word on the table, and 
to form a conclusion for himself, the study of grammar 
becomes, in effect, mathematical or algebraical; for as 
there is always an equation between the pound weight 
* and the quantity that it balances, (equates or equals,) and 
as the only reason why a piece of cloth is a yard long, 
is because it is just as long as* & yard measure, so the 
only reason why any word is a part of speech, is be- 
cause it holds a relation to some word in the sentence 
where it occurs, corresponding to that already given on 
the table. 

Let the words in the table be represented by A (as 
hioicn quantities), and the words in the sentence about 
to be parsed by X as unknown quantities. 

Now, if X = A — thS unknown quantity becomes 
known — the word is parsed, and the equation justified. 

*A* — as {Equality — i. e., comj^arison.) 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



A TABLE 

EXHIBITING ALL THE RELATIONS OF WORDS IN THE 
ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Cold 1 day. Adj., belonging to 

Man 2 walks. Noun, nom. case to 



O Man. 3 " case independent. 

Man 4 being killed. " case absolute. 

Man's 5 horse. " possessive case. 

Saw Man. 6 " obj. (accusative) case. 

To Man. 7 Noun, obj. case, gov'd by 

John, He 8 (is). Pronoun, standingfor 

John Is. 9 * Verb, intransitive 

Scott Conquered 10 Mexico. " transitive. 

Mexico Was conquered. 11 • " passive. 

Moves Slowly. 12 Adverb, qualifying 



(Book) Of 13 fate. Preposition, adj.- relation. 

(Smiles) O'er 14 repose. " adverbial relation. 

Two And 15 three. , Conj., connecting words. 

atav i ^ r16 ne ma y g°- " connecting sentences. 
Alas ! n Interjection ; no relation 4 ? 

Can 18 go. Auxiliary verb. 

Extremely 19 cold. Auxiliary adjective. 
Very 20 swiftly. Auxiliary adverb. 
Almost 21 to. Auxiliary preposition. 



Note. — Every one of the eighty thousand words in the English lan- 
guage, when arranged in a sentence, will take the place of, and, of 
course, become the same part of speech as one of the twenty-one words 
in the foregoing scale. 



* The infinitive has a relation to that word which immediately pre- 
cedes it, in construction. The participle has the 1st relation as an ad- 
jective, and either the 9th, 10th or 11th, as a verb. 



BLACK-BOARD EXERCISES. 29 

" One word belongs to another" 



Sentence. 
The Sun went down ; nor ceased the carnage there — 
Tumultuous murder shook the midnight air. 

Syn-[Analysis.] thesis. 
The 1 

Sun 2 



.went 9 
-down; 12 



_ceased 9 
the 1 



carnage 2 - 



_there. 12 
Tumnltuous 1 - 
niurder 2 

_shook 10 



the 1 



midnight 1 - 



Note. — Fill the blank with pencil, to give each word its relation. 



30 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
" One word belongs to another? 



SECOND ANALYSIS OF THE WORDS ON THE PLATE. 

adj. , and belongs to moon. 

adj., and belongs to moon. 

noun, nom. to smiles. 

adv., qualifies smiles. 

intr. v., agrees with moon, 

prep., governs repose. 

noun, poss. before repose. 

adj., belongs to repose. 

noun, object of o'er. 

adj.', belongs to cloud. 

adj., belongs to cloud. 

noun, nom. to obscures. 

tr. verb, agrees with cloud. 

adj., belongs to sky. 

noun, object of obscures. 
f conj., connects cloud obscures sky 
1 and tempest blows. 

adj., belongs to tempest. 

noun, nom. to bloivs. 
f intr. v., irreg. 3d pers. sing., and 
1 agrees with tempest. 

adv., qualifies sinks. 

adj., belongs to fjassion. 

noun, nom. to sinks. 
| intr v., irreg., 3d pers. sing., and 
1 agrees with passion. 

prep., governs rest. 

noun, obj., governed by to. 

adj., belongs to heart. 

adj., belongs to heart. 

noun, nom. to lies. 
f intr. v., irreg. 3d pers. sing., and 
1 agrees with heart. 

adj., belongs to heart, 
(conj., Connects heart lies and 
1 schemes distract will. 

adj., belongs to schemes. 

noun, plural, nom. to distract 

prep., governs life. 

noun, obj. governed by of. 

adv., qualifies distract. 
| tr. v., 3d pers. plural, and agrees 
1 with schemes. 

adj., belongs to will. 

adj., belongs to will. 

noun, object of distract. 





Thel moon 




midnight 1 moon 




moon 2 smiles 


smiles 


serenely 12 


moon 


smiles,9 


smiles 


O'er 14 repose 




nature's 5 repose 




softl repose 


o'er 


repose ; 7 




Nol cloud 




low'ringl cloud 




cloud 2 obscures 


cloud 


obscures 10 sky 




thel sky 


obscures 


sky,6 


cloud 


obscures sky \ 
tempest blows. J 


nor 16 




ruffling l tempest 




tempest 2 blows 


tempest 


blows,9 


sinks 


Now l 2 




every l passion 




passion 2 sinks 


passion 


sinks 9 


sinks 


to I* rest 


to 


rest; 7 




Thel heart 




throbbing 1 heart 




heart 2 lies 


heart 


lies 9 




still 1 heart 


heart 


lies and 16 ) 
distract will] 


schemes 




varying 1 schemes 




schemes 2 distract 


schemes 


of 13 life 


of 


life 7 


distract 


no more I 2 


schemes 


Distract 10 will 1 
the 1 will 






lab'ringi will 


distract 


will 6 



BLACK-BOARD EXERCISES. 



31 



SECOND ANALYSIS OF THE WORDS ON THE PLATE. 



hushed In 14 silence 

in silence,? 

hushed l power 

attends toll voice 

reason's 5 voice 

to voice 7 

power attends 9 

each 1 power 
mental 1 power 
power 2 attends 

{thou) Come, 9 j 

dearl Amelia 

( 0) Amelia,3 

(do thou) come and 16 j 
(do thou) enjoy hour J 

(thou) enjoy 1° hour J- 

Reflection's 5 hour 
fav'ritel hour 
enjoy hour.6 

(thou) Come 9 

invites while 12 

thel scene 
peaceful l scene 
scene 2 invites 

scene invites 10 (us) 

(thou) Let 10 us 

let 8 U s 6 

us (to) search 1° round. 
thisl round 
ample 1 round 

search round ;6 

shall be } 
found J 

shall 18 be found 
thel form 
lovely l form 
fleeting l form 
form 2 shall be found 

form of 13 happiness 

of happiness 7 

be 18 found 



• Where 12 



prep., governs silence. 

noun, obj. governed by in, 

adj., belongs to power. 

prep., governs voice. 

noun, poss. before voice. 

noun, obj. governed by to. 

intr. v., 3d sing., to agree with power. 

adj., belongs to power. 

adj., belongs to power. 

noun, norn. to attends. 
'( verb, irreg. intr., imp. mood, 2d 
1 pers. sixg., to agree with thou, • 

adj., belongs to Amelia, 
{noun, prop, fern., 2d pers. sing., 

- 1 CASE IND. 

( conj., connects (thou) come and 

1 (do thou) enjoy hour. 

( tr. v,, reg. imperative, 2d pers, 

1 sing., to agree with thou, 
noun, poss. before hour, 
adj., belongs to hour, 
noun, object of enjoy. 

f intr. v., irreg, imp., 2d singular, 

( agrees with thou, 
adv., qualifies invites, 
adj., belongs to scene, 
adj., belongs to scene. 
noun, nom. to invites. 
ir. v., agrees with scme^ 

( tr. v., irreg. imperative, 2d sing. 

( agrees with thou, 
pron., object of let. 
tr. v., infinitive, governed by us, 
adj., belongs to round, 
adj., belongs to round* 
noun, object of to search. 

adv., qualifying sJiall be found 

auz. verb, joined to be found, 
adj., belongs to form, 
adj., belongs to form. 
adj n belongs to form, 
noun, nom. to shall be found, 
prep., governs happiness, 
noun, obj. governed by of. 
auz. verb, joined to found. 

{pass, verb, irreg. indie, future, 3d 
pers. sing., to agree with form. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PAKSING FROM THE PLATE. 



Relation, midnight moon. 

1* Midnight — is an adjective, and belongs to 

Eule 1. — Every adjective belongs to a noun or pro- 
oun ; as _____ 

Relation, moon smiles. 
2 Moon — is a noun, or name; 

common, a general name ; 

feminine gender, by personification ; 

third person, spoken of; 

singular number, denotes but one; 

nominative case to the verb 



Rule 2. — The nominative case is the subject of the 
verb ; as, 

Relation, moon smiles. 
9 Smiles — is a verb, expressing existence ; 
regular, it forms its past tense in ed; 
intransitive, having no object, 
indicative mood, simply indicates or declares; 
present tense, represents present time ; 
third person singular, to agree with 

Rule 9. — A verb agrees with its nominative case in 
number and person ; as, 

Relation, smiles serenely. 

12 Serenely — is an adverb, and qualifies 

Rule 12. — Adverbs qualify verbs ; as, 



* All words on the plate, marked 1, are adjectives, and parsed like 
midnight. All words marked 2 are in the nominative, and generally 
parsed like cloud. For reference to the other figures, see Table of re- 
lations and definitions, page 28. 




The figure 2 always denotes the subject; 9, 10 and 11 mark the predicate; all 
other numbers denote the complements. 



34 PARSING FROM THE PLATE. 

Relation, smiles o'er repose. 

14 O'er — is a preposition, governing , and 

giving its phrase and adverbial relation to 

Eule 14. — Prepositions give their phrase an adverbial 
relation to the preceding v^rb or participle ; as, 



Relation, Nature's repose. 
5 Nature's — is a noun, or name ; 
common, a. general name ; 
neuter gender, denotes neither sex ; 
third person, spoken of; 
singular number, denotes but one object; 
possessive, possessing the noun 

Eule 5. — The possessive case possesses a noun; as, 



Relation, o'er repose. 
7 Eepose — is a noun, or name; 
common, a general name; 
neuter gender, it denotes neither sex; 
third person, spoken of; • 

singular number, it denotes but one object; 
objective case, governed by the prep. 



Eule 7. — Prepositions govern the objective case ; a$, 



Relation, cloud obscures. 
2 Cloud — is a noun, or name ; 

common, not applied to individuals; 
neuter gender, it denotes neither sex; 
third person, spoken of; 
singular number, it denotes but one ; 

nominative case to the verb 

(Rule 2.) 

Relation, cloud obscures sky. 
10 Obscures — is a verb, denoting action ; 
regular, it forms its past tense in ed; 
transitive, governing the object ; 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35 

indicative mood, simply indicates or declares ; 
present tense, represents present time ; 

third person singular, to agree with 

(Rule 9.) 
Relation, obscures sky. 

6 Sky — is a noun, or name; 

common, a general name ; 
neuter gender, it denotes neither sex; 
third person, spoken of; 
singular number, denotes but one object ; 
accusative* (obj.) case, governed by the trans, 
verb 

Eule 6. — Transitive verbs govern the accusative (06- 

as, 



jective) 



Relation, cloud obscures sky nor tempest blows. 

16 Nor — is a conjunction, connecting the sentences 
nor 



Rule 16. — Conjunctions connect words or sentences ; 
as, (conj.) 



ANALYSIS OF THE REMAINING VERBS. 

Relation ; tempest blows, passion sinks, heart lies. 

9 Blows, sinks and lies are each parsed like smiles, 
with the exception of the second line, which must be 
read : 

irregular, it does not form its past tense in ed. 

Relation : schemes distract will 

10 Distract is parsed like obscures, except in the last 
Jine, which should be read : 

Third person plural, to agree with schemes. 

{Rule 9.) 


, * We have called tins case accusative, after the manner of gram- 
mars in all other languages, to distinguish it from the object of the 
preposition ; but the teacher may retain the old name, if preferable. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

. Relation; (do thou) come. 

9 Come — is a verb, denoting existence ; 

irregular, it does not form its past tense in ed; 
intransitive, having nq object, 
imperative mood, used for commanding, en- 
treating, etc. 
second person singular, to agree with thou. 

(Rule 9.) 
Relation ; (do thou) enjoy hour. 

10 Enjoy — is a verb, denoting action ; 

regular, it forms its past tense in ed. 

transitive, governing the object ; 

imperative mood, used for commanding, en- 
treating, etc. 
present tense, represents present time ; 

second person singular, to agree with , 

(Rule 9.) 
Relation; (thou) let us. 

10 Let is parsed like enjoy, except ; 

irregular, it will not form its past tense in ed. 

Relation ; happiness shall be found. 

11 Shall be found — is a verb, expressing action re- 

ceived ; 

irregular, it will not form its past tense in ed; 
passive, having a passive nominative ; 
indicative mood, it simply indicates or declares; 
future tense, represents future time ; 
third person singular, to agree with 



Relation ; us to search round. 
10 To search — is a verb, denoting action ; 
regular, forms its past tense in ed; 
transitive, governing the object 



(Rule 9.) 



infinitive mood, expresses unlimited action ; 
present tense, represents present time ; 
governed by 

Eule 10. The" infinitive mood is governed by the pre- 
ceding word, in construction j as, to 



PARSING FROM THE PLATE. 37 

Belation ; schemes of life. 

13 Of — is a preposition, governing , and giv- 
ing its phrase an adjective relation to the noun 

Eule 13. Prepositions give their phrase an adjective 
relation to a noun ; as, . ' - m 

Belation ; O Amelia. 
3 Amelia — is a noun, name of a person ; 
proper, an appropriated name ; 
feminine gender, denotes a female ; 
second person, spoken to ; 
singular number, denotes but one ; 
Case independent. 

Eule 3. — All nouns of the second person are in the 
case independent. 

THE BLACKBOARD EXERCISES. 

No grammarian ever transposed a word or filled an 
ellipsis, except to give to the word which he is about to 
parse one of the 21 relations contained in the Table on 
the 28th page*of this book, as this is the only possible 
way to make any word a part of speech. Filling the 
blanks in the following exercises is nothing more than 
transposing and filling the ellipsis. If this is correctly, 
done, the scholar will find no difficulty in parsing his 
words, by referring them to the table of relations, and 
seeing that they have relations corresponding to those 
contained in the table. 

j®* Let the teacher put the following questions on 
each word in the exercises : — 

1. What is the word about to be parsed ? 

2. What other ivord or words must be joined to it to make 
it a part of speech? 

3. Which of the 21 relations does it take f 

4. Vihat part of speech is it in consequence of that rela- 
tion ? 



38 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



" One word belongs to another? 



Sentence. 



The war, that for a space did fail, 
Now, trebly found' ring, swelled the gale, 
And "Stanley" was the cry, 
A light on Marm ion's visage spread, 
And fired his glazing eye. 



Syn- [Analysis.] tax. 

The i 

war, 2 

8 that 2 

for 14 

ai 



. space? 
did is 
fails 



— now, 12 
trebly 12 

thund'ring, 1 - 

— [thund'ring,] 9 

— swelled 10 

the 1 

gale,<> 



And 16 



Stanley 2 
was 9 
the J _ 



cry.2 

A 1 

light 2 

on 14 

Marmion's 5 
visage t 
spread. 9 



Parsing. 

. adj., belongs to 

noun, nom. to 

pron., standing for 
prep., and governs 

. adj., belongs to 



noun, obj. governed by 
— aux. verb, joined to 
intr, verb, agrees with 

adv., qualifies 

adv., qualifies 



r adj., belongs to 



-part ( aa J-> Dewn f M 

I int. verb, agrees with . 

- tr. verb, agrees with 

- adj., belongs to 

noun, object of 



conj., connecting 

noun, nom. to 

intr. verb, agrees with 
adj., belongs to — — 

noun, nom. after 

adj., and belongs to 

noun, nom. to 

prep., governs 



noun, poss., before 
noun, obj., governed by 
intr. verb, agrees with 



BLACK-BOARD EXERCISES. 
" One word belongs to another. 11 



39 



Sentence. 



With dying hand above his head, 

He shook the fragment of his blade 

And shouted victory! 

* Charge, Chester, charge ! On, Stanley, on ! ' 

Were the last words of Marmion." 



Syn-[Analysis.] tax. 

With 14 

dying! 

hand 7, 

above 14 

8 his 5 

head,? 

SHe2 1 



AndlG 



shook 10 

thel 

fragments 

of 13 

8 his 5 

blade 7 



shouted 1° 

"Victory!" 6 
. " Charged 
. Chester,3 
. charge ! 9 
. On ! * 12 

Stanley, 3 
. on P * 12 

Were 9 

thel 

lastl 

words 2 

. of 13 

. Marmion. 7 



Parsing. 
_ Prep., governs hand. 

— adj., and belongs to hand. 

noun, objective governed by with. 
_ prep., governs head. 

— p. p. poss. case before head, 
noun, object of above. 

— p. p., nom. to shook. 

— tr. v., agrees with he. 

_ adj., belongs to fragment. 
# nounj object-6 of shook. 

— prep.) governs blade. 

— P- P-) po ss - case before blade, 
nounj objective governed by of. 



. conj.) connects shook and shouted. 
tr. v., agrees with he. 
noun, object of shouted. 
int. v. im., agrees with thou, implied. 
noun, independent case. 
in. v. im., agrees with thou, implied- 
adv., agrees with press, implied. 
noun } independent case. 
adv.) agrees with press, implied. 
in.vb.) agrees. with preced'g clause.'!" 
adj.) belongs to words, 
adj., belongs to ivords. 
nou^ nom. after were. 
prep., governs Marmion. 
noun, obj. governed by of. 



* These words may also be considered as interjections or verbs in the imperative 
mood. By the above synthetical connection they are regarded as adverbs, qualifying 
urge or press, understood. 

f Or with " words " following. 



40 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
" One word belongs to another." 



Sentence : 



-" They feed, they quaff; and now, their hunger fled, 
Sigh for their friends devoured, and mourn the dead." 



.8 They 2 . 

feed, 9 
.8 they 2 . 

quaff ; 9 



. now, 12 
. 8 their 5 _ 
hunger 4= 
fled, 1 



and 16^, 



- [fled,9] 
sigh 9 

for 14 h 

8 their 5 

. friends 7 

devoured, 1 _ 
[devoured] 9 



■} 



mourn 9 
thel — 



and 16") 



dead. 7 



pron., nom. to feed, 
intr. v., agrees with they, 
pron., nom. to quaff, 
intr. v., agrees with they, 
(conj., connects they quaff and 
( (they) sigh. 
adv., qualifies fled, 
pron, poss. before hunger, 
noun, abs. case before fled. 
. (adj., belongs to hunger. 
\intr. v., agrees with which, 
nntr. verb, agrees with they, 
prep., governs friends, 
pron., poss. before friends, 
noun, obj. governed by for. 
(adj., belongs to friends. 
\in. v., agrees with who. 
(conj., connects (they) sigh and 
(^ (they) mourn. \ 

inir. v., agrees with they, 
adj., belongs to dead, 
noun, obj., governed by for.* 



part. - 



Sentence: — John went almost to Boston." 



John 2 _ 
went 9 
almost 21 

to 14 

. Boston. 7 



_ noun, nom. to went. 

intr. v., agrees with John, 
aux. prep., joined to to. 
prep., governs Boston. 
m noun, obj. governed by to. 



* Governed by for, understood— Mourn for the dead, as mourn is intransitive, and 
can not govern an object. 



BLACK-BOARD EXERCISES. 
k One word belongs to another." 



41 



Sentence: — "Cold duty's path is not so blithely trod." 



Coldi 



duty's 5 _ 
path 2 +_ 
is 18 



not 12 
so 20 _ 



blithely 12 
trod. 11 



_ adj., belongs to duty's. 

noun, poss. before path. 

noun, norn. to is trod. 
• aux. verb, joined to trod. 
- adv., qualifies is trod. 

aux. adv., joined to blithely. 

adv., qualifies trod. 

pass, verb., agrees with path. 



Sentence: — "0, how bitter a thing it is to look 

. Into happiness through another man's eyes!" 



0,17 

how 19 - 
bitter l. 
ai 



thing 2 _ 

8 it* 2 _ 
.is 9 
to look o 
Into 14 _ 



happiness 7 
through 1* __ 
another 1 . — 

man's 5 

eyes ! 7 



Interjection, no relation. 
aux. adj., joined to bitter, 
adj., belongs to thing, 
adj., belongs to thing, 
noun, nom. to is, 
pron., nom. to is. 
inir. v., agrees with thing, 
in. v., inf., governed by is. 
■ prep., governs happiness, 
noun, objective governed by into, 
prep., governs eyes, 
adj., belongs to maris, 
noun, poss. before eyes, 
noun, object of through. 



* It stands for thing, and ie used in apposition with it. 



42 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



H 




02 


„ 


HH 


K 


O 




tf 


O 


w 


1 


X 


o 


& 


51 




s 


p 




« 


rO 


<1 


^ 
*- 


o 


o 


rt 


*> 


i 


a 


a 


s 


<1 




H* 




p 





•a 



# bJ0 

"3 



o 

a 
o 



"& 









° -3 



^ if 3 



*< 
.& 



fco 

r-< © 

1 •* 

g - 

PI 



73 


§ 



faO 



73 

CO 



73 



6 

faJQ 



73 

a 

c3 



faO 

.9 
73 



73 



faO 
S3 



73 

c3 



3 
ft 

CO 



faD 

c3 



faJQ 

.3 

*GG 

H3 
CO 

ft 

B 



73 



o 

73 

c3 



•© 



g 

O .rH 

fcJD £ 



fc£> 
73 

fab 






fafi 

a 



73 
3 



ft 

a 



73 
3 



g 






I Z -2 



• rl <U 



"fe. 



^ 






c3 



-a 



fcJO 

£2 "3 



rt 

£ 



BLACK-BOARD EXERCISES. 



43 








bO bfl 


o 

CO 


Ion, 
sin 




^ CO 


© 


, PS J 


rO 


c3 "g 


PS 






»-1 




n 

o 



bO 

PS 

c3 



5 



bO 

c3 












•3 



bD 

.s 



■S & 



bJO 

5h 



2 
c3 






c3 .ro 



«»i ^ 



§> 






•^3 






O 



{25 
GO 



bJO 

PS 



•d 
CO 



bO 

c3 



bD 

PS 



GO 

pit 

g 



*d 



bD 

c3 



bO 



Ph 



•S- * 



00 T5 
bJO CO 
PS 



■d «a 

.r-t t3 

biD c3 



<3 



H3 
PS 



tH ° 



s 



t 



PS 

f— i a 
c3 * 



>> 


© 


05* 


CI 


© 


•rJ 


PS 




© 


-<-» 


rP 




a) 


o 


O 


CO 


PS 


PS 


£ 






© 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" One word belongs to another" 



Sentence : — " How do you do, John ?" 
How 12 adv. } and qualifies do. 

do 18 auz. verb, joined to do. 

. 8 you 2 ! pron., nom. to do. 

do, 9 intr. v., and agrees with you. 

John ? 3 noun, case independent. 



Sentence : — " Few and short were the prayers we said." 

Few 1 adj., belongs to prayers. 

■ and 15 conj., connecting feiv and short. 

short 1 adj., belongs to prayers. 

were 9 intr. v., agrees with prayers. 

the 1 adj., belongs to prayers. 

prayers 2 noun, nom. to were. 

8 we 2 pron., nom. to said. 

said. 10 tr. verb, agrees with we. 



Sentence : — " It is but as if he should say, I know you not." 

It 2* pers. pron., nom. to is. 

is 9 intr. v., agrees with it. 

but 12 adv., qualifies is. 



asl6f conj., connects it is and it is. 

if 10 f conj., connects — (see note.) 

8 he 2 _. ; pron., nom. to should say. 

should i8 aux. verb, joined to say. 

. say,lo J tr. v., agrees with he. 

812 p. p n nom. to know. 

knowl° tr. v., agrees with I. 

8youG pron., object of know. 

not. 12 adv., qualifies know. 

* It is, impers. verb. It stands for the subsequent clause. " as if be should say," etc. 
t " It is as it is," or as it would be if, etc. If connects (as) it would be if he should 
say, etc. 

X Say governs the clause " I know you not." 



BLACK-BOARD EXERCISES. 
METHOD OF CORRECTING FALSE SYNTAX. 



45 



Sentence: — U A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye." 



Ai 



variety 2 
. of 13 



pleasing 1 
. objects 7 
charm 10 

the* 

eye. 6 * 



adj., belongs to variety, 
noun, nom. to charms, 
prep., governs objects, 
adj., belongs to objects, 
noun, obj. governed by of 
verb, agrees with variety. 
adj., belongs to eye. 
noun, object of charms. 



Sentence: — " There remains two points to be considered.' ' 



There 12 
remains « 
twol 



points 2 



to be considered. 11 



adv., qualifies remain. 

verb, agrees with points. 

adj., belongs to points. 

noun, nom. to remain. 

pass, verb, infin., gov'd by remain. 



Sentence: — "In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man." 

In 14 prep., governs piety. 

piety 7 noun, obj. governed by in. 

and 15 conj., connects piety and virtue. 



virtue 7 
consist 9 
thel 



happiness 2 . 
. of 13' 



man.7 



noun, obj. governed by in. 
verb, agrees with happiness, 
adj., belongs to happiness, 
noun, nom. to consists, 
prep., governs man. 
noun, obj. governed by of. 



* False Syntax — "Objects charm." True Syntax— "Of ohjecfs" and "variety 
charms. " By giving each word its true syntax, the error will appear, and the student 
can correct with a pencil. 



45 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
FALSE SYNTAX. 



Sentence: — u Great pains has been taken to make this work 

useful." 



Great 1 

pains 2 

. has been taken 11 

to make * 1° 

thisl 

-work 6 

useful.l 



adj. j belongs to pains. 

noun, nom. to have been taken. 

pass, verb, agrees with pains. 

tr. verb, infin. governed by taken. 

adj., belongs to work. 

noun, object of to make. 

adj., belongs to work. 



Sentence: — "The man, who he raised from obscurity, is dead/' 



Thel 

man, 2 

8 who 6 

. 8 he t 2 

. raised 10 — 

. from 14 

. obscurity,? 
. is 9 
dead. 1 



adj., belongs to man. 
noun, nom. to is. 
pron., object of raised, 
pronoun, nom. to raised. 
tr. verb, agrees with he. 
prep., and governs obscurity, 
noun, objective governed by from, 
intr. v. agrees with man. 
adj., belongs to man. 



Sentence: — " Patience and diligence, like faith, removes moun- 
tains. 



Patience and ) 
diligence 2 j 

.like 14 

.faith? 

. removes 1° 



mountains. 6 



nouns, nom. to remove. 

prep., governs faith. 

noun, objective governed by like. 

f tr. verb, agrees with patience and 
| diligence. 

noun, objective of remove. 



■■■ That is, to render. 

j- lie stands for person, understood. Who (corrected, ivhom) stands for man. 



BLACK-BOAED EXERCISES. 47 

FALSE SYNTAX. 



Sentence: — "Who will you give that pen to?" 

__ 8 Who* 7 pron., obj. governed by to. 

will 18 aux. verb, joined to give. 

— 8 you * 2 — : pron., nom. to will give. 

— give 10 tr. verb, agrees with you. 

thatl adj., belongs to pen. 

— pen 6 noun, object of give. 

— to ? l£ . — prep., governs whom. 



Sentence: — "He and they we know." 

8 He* 6 pron., object of know. 

. and 15 conj., connects him and them. 

8 they* 6 pron., object of know. 

8-we* 2 pron., npm. to know. 

know. 10 - — tr. verb, agrees with we. 

Sentence: — "Neither precept nor discipline are so forcible as 

example." 

Neither t 1 cor. conj. or adj. belonging to precep U 

precept 2 noun, nom. to is, 

nor 15 conj., connect' g precept & discipline. 

discipline 2 _ noun, nom. to is. 

are J 9 inir. v., agrees with, precept. 

so 19 . aux. adj., belonging to forcible. 

forcible § l adj., belongs to discipline* 

as i| 16 conj., connects 



example.2 noun, nom. to is. 



* Stands for person or persons, understood. 

f As an adjective this word qualifies precept or discipline. As a conj., it connects the 
two words. See pa.s;o 130 and 141. 

1 Either precept or discipline, singly, is the nominative. 

£ " Forcible discipline " or u forcible precept." 

\ As conn sets precept (or discipline) is {forcible) as example (is forcible.) Supply the 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



The following exercises are arranged in such a man- 
ner as to cover the whole ground of English philology ; 
and, if they are carefully gone over by the student, they 
can not fail to lead him to a perfect knowledge of all the 
j)rinciples of the language. But, in order to do this 
effectually, all the exercises should be disposed of in 
accordance with the principles of relation on page 28. 
That is, every sentence must be written out on the 
black-board, after the manner of the example on page 
29; and every word should be numbered and equated 
with the table on page 28, by reduplicating the words. 

Each exercise should be transcribed into a blank-book, 
which, being a review of the whole subject, will serve to 
fix the lessons more permanently on the memory of the 
student. The book, thus prepared, may be used for fu- 
ture reference. 

In analyzing these exercises, the teacher should ask 
the following general questions : — What is the sentence ? 
Is it principal or dependent? Simple or conrpound? If 
dependent, how connected ; by a word of the 8th or 16th 
relation ? What is the subject? What is the predicate ? 
What is the complement of the subject? What is the 
complement of the predicate? What is the word about 
to be parsed? What other word or words must be 
joined to it to make it a definite part of speech ? Which 
of the 21 relations does it take ? What part of speech 
is it in consequence of that relation ? On what page is 
the corresponding number and example for parsing this 
word ? (Page 32-4-5-6.) 

If the exercises are gone over thoroughly, in exact 
accordance with the above plan, they can not fail to per- 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 49 

feet the scholar in a knowledge of grammar, and to 
enable him to understand all the rules, definitions, etc, 
contained in the second part of this work, even before 
he shall have read them ; although it is proper that 
the student should study the second part, while going 
through these exercises in the first part, so that theory 
and practice may be combined. 



ON THE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN. 

Lesson I. 

1 A 1 high 1 wall 2 stands 9 * by 14 the 1 road-side. 7 

2 A 1 young 1 man 2 t wrote 10 t a 1 large 1 book. 6 

3 The 1 broad 1 green 1 leaves 2 ? of 13 the 1 trees 7 make 10 

a 1 fine 1 shade. 6 

4 The 1 large, 1 black, 1 iron 1 stove 2 stands 9 on 14 the 1 

floor. 7 

5 The 1 river 2 runs 9 * slowly 12 by 14 the 1 high 1 moun- 

tains. 7 

6 Many 1 people 2 ? think 10 T[ the 1 earth 2 is 9 not 12 

round. 1 ** 

7 The 1 sky 2 is 9 blue. 1 The 1 road 2 is 9 wide. 1 

8 The 1 roan 1 horse 2 is 9 in 14 the 1 pasture. 7 

9 Good 1 boys 2 § love 1(M [[ to study 10 8 their 5 lessons. 6 

Lesson II. 

1 Where 12 is 9 John's 5 book? 2 8 It 2 is 9 on 14 the 1 

table. 7 

2 James ! 3 have 18 8 you 2 - learned 10 8 your 5 lesson? 6 



* Parse like blows. f Parse like Amelia, except common, 
line gender, Zd person, and nominative case. 

% Like obscures, except irreg. and imperfect tense. § Plural. 
f Governs the following phrase as an object. 
•* Adj., belongs to earth. 
5 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3 Yes, 12 sir, 3 ft 8 1 2 have 18 learned 10 8 it. 6 

4 8 Your 5 lesson 4 being learned, 8 you 2 may 18 go 9 JJ 

and play. 9 

5 A 1 good 1 conscience 2 fears 10 nothing. 6 

6 Devotion 2 promotes 10 and 15 strengthens 10 virtue. 6 

7 Knowledge 2 gives 10 happiness 6 to 14 solitude. 7 

8 Bad 1 habits 2 require 10 immediate 1 reformation. 6 

9 Economy 2 is 9 no 1 disgrace. 2 

Lesson III. 

1 Good 1 and 15 wise 1 men 2 only, 19 can 18 be 9 JJ real 1 

friends. 2 

2 James 2 performs 10 8 his 5 part 6 well. 12 

3 Evil 1 communications 2 corrupt 10 good 1 manners. 6 

4 Deep 1 rivers 2 faiove 9 with 14 silent 1 majesty; 7 but 1 
small 1 brooks 2 are 9 noisy. 1 

5 Many 1 people 2 form 10 conclusions 6 before 16 8 they 2 
have 18 fully 12 considered 10 the 1 subject. 6 

6 Some 1 persons 2 affect 10 haughty 1 manners. 6 

7 Pride, 2 perceiving 1,10 humility 6 honorable, 1 often 12 
borrows 10 8 her 5 cloak. 6 

Note. — The large figures, numbering the sentences, are for the con- 
venience of reference; and the small figures attached to the words 
refer to the Table of Relations, page 28. 



MODEL FOR THE FORMATION OF VERBS. 

Transitive, intransitive, and passive. 
Lesson IV. 

1 God created the world. 

2 Columbus discovered America. 

3 We heard a drum. 4 The table supports a book. 
♦5 Milton wrote a poem. 

tt Yes, an adv., and qualifies have learned. Sir, common noun, 2d 
person, case ind. 
%X Potential mood. 



! 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 51 

(> Washington liberated his country. 

7 A good conscience will make a man happy. 

8 Yice degrades learning, obscures the luster of every 
accomplishment, and sinks us into universal contempt. 

INTRANSITIVE. TRANSITIVE. PASSIVE. 

World was. God created world. World was created. 

America was. Columbus discovered America. America was discovered. 
Drum was. We heard drum. Drum was heard. 

Book is. Table supports book. Book is supported. 

Poem was. Milton wrote poem. Poem was written. • 

Country was. Washington liberated country.Country was liberated. 
Man will be. Conscience will make man. Man will be made. 
Learning is. Vice degrades learning. Learning is degraded. 

Luster is. Vice obscures luster. Luster is obscured. 

We are. Vice sinks us. We are sunk. 



MODEL FOR PAUSING THE PRECEDING VERBS. 

* 
Relation, world, was. 

Was is a verb, irregular; intransitive, having no ob- 
ject ; indicative mood ; imperfect tense ; third person 
singular to agree with world. (Rule 9.) 

Relation, God created world. 
Created is a verb, regular; transitive, governing 
world; indicative, imperfect, third person singular, to 
agree with God. (Rule 9.) 

Relation, world was created* 
Was created is a verb t regular ; passive, having a 
passive nominative ; indicative mood, imperfect tense, 
third person singular to agree with world. (Rule 9.) 

Note. — The above model of parsing the transitive verb, and chang- 
ing it into its intransitive and passive form, is of the utmost impor- 
tance, and should be practiced by the scholar during all his exercises 
through the grammar, in order to acquire a thorough knowledge of the 
formation of verbs; for unless the scholar forms these passive verbs 
for himself, he will not meet with a sufficient number of them in the 
pieces of poetry, etc., usually selected for parsing, to lead to a thorough 
understanding of their nature. 



52 * ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Transitive Verb, 
Lesson V. 

1 A good conscience will make 10 a man happy. 

2 Application in the early period of life, will give 10 
happiness and ease to succeeding years. 

3 Dissimulation degrades 10 learning, obscures 10 the 
luster of every accomplishment, and sinks 10 us into uni- 
versal contempt. 

4 If we lay 10 no restraint upon our lusts, no control 
upon our appetites and passions, they will hurry 10 us 
into guilt and misery. 

5 Indolence undermines 10 the foundation of every 
virtue, and unfits 10 a man for the social duties of life. 



Intransitive Verb. 
Lesson VL 

1 A virtuous education ?fe s a better inheritance than a 
great estate. 

2 He that swells 9 in prosperity, will shrink* in ad- 
versity. 

3 You must not always rely* on promises. 

4 Friendship can scarcely exist* where virtue is 9 not 
the foundation. 

5 From idleness arises* neither pleasure nor advan- 
tage : we must, therefore, flee * from idleness, the certain 
parent of guilt and ruin. 

6 The evidence of a man's education exists 9 in his 
conversation and writings. * 



EELATION OF THE VERBS IN LESSON V AND VI. 
Transitive. Intransitive. 

Conscience will make man. Education is. 

Application will give happiness. That swells. 

Dissimulation degrades learning. He will shrink. 

Dissimulation obscures luster. You must rely. 

Dissimulation sinks us. Friendship can exist. 

We lay restraint. Virtue is. 

They will hurry us. Idleness arises. 

Indolence undermines foundation. We must flee. 

Indolence unfits man. Evidence exists. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 53 

Passive Verbs. 
Lesson VII. 

1 Virtue must be formed 11 and supported 11 by daily 
and repeated exertions. 

2 You may be deprived n of honor against your will. 

3 Yirtue is connected 11 with eminence in every lib- 
eral art. 

4 Many are brought 11 to ruin by extravagance and 
dissipation. 

5 The best designs are often ruined 11 by unnecessary 
delay. 

6 All our recreations should be accompanied " by vir- 
tue and innocence. 

7 All difficulties may be overcome u with diligence. 

8 Some talents are buried 11 in the earth. 

9 True pleasure is only to be found n in the path of 
virtue. 

10 Our most sanguine prospects have often been 
blasted u by sudden and unexpected reverses. 

11 The table of Dyonysius, the tyrant, was loaded 11 
with delicacies of every kind. 

12 All our actions should be regulated 11 by religion 
and reason. 

NOTES ON THE ABOVE VERBS. 
' Must — is an aux. verb, forming the pot. pres. of form. 



C Must — is an 

< BE is 

( F 



-is an auxiliary, making the verb passive. 
-formed — verb, passive, potential, present. 

Must be supported, analyzed like the above. 

May be deprived, analyzed like the above, 
f Is — an aux. verb, forming the indie, pres. passive voice. 
1 connected — verb; passive, indicative, present. 

Are brought — verb; passive, indicative, present, (plfiral.) 

Are ruined — verb ; passive, indicative, present, (plural.) 
f Should — aux. verb, forming the pot. imperfect tense. 

•j be — aux. forming the pot. imperfect passive voice. 

I accompanied — verb, pas. potential, imp. 

May be overcome ; (like must be formed.) 

Are buried : (like are ruined.) 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

r To — aux., forming the infinitive present, 

-J be —aux., forming the passive voice. 

( found — verb ; passive, infinitive present, 

C Have — aux. verb, forming the indicative perfect. 

-J been — aux. verb, forming the passive voice. 

( . blasted — verb ; passive, i?idic. perfect 

f Was — aux. verb, forming the indie, imp. passive voice. 

( loaded — verb; passive, indicative, imperfect. 

Should be regulated ; {like should be formed.) 



EXERCISES ON THE MOODS AND TENSES. 

Auxiliary Verbs, 
Lesson VIII. 
Note. — The Auxiliary Verbs are used to form the moods and tenses 
of other verbs. They are, have, do, be, shall, will, may, and can, with 
their variations; and must, which has no variation. These auxiliary 
verbs are confined to a certain mood or tense, as shown on the table 
of conjugation, page 121. 

1 John walks to church. 

2 The boys do study grammar; and they have stu- 
died for. a long time. 

3 David destroyed the note, after he had sold the 
land. 

4 I shall go to New York next week, 

5 They will return in a short time. 

6 They will have completed their lessons by two 
o'clock. 

7 Present arms ! 8 Forgive us our trespasses. 

9 He may have spoken to my friend. 

10 You should pay respects to your father. 

11 She might have loved him. 

12 If it rain to-morrow I will come. 

13 If I "see him, I will speak to him. 

14 If he has left the city, I shall not see him. 

15 If he were loved, he would consider himself happy. 

16 Were he loved, he would be happy. 

17 Had he paid attention to my counsel, he would 
have been safe. 

18 He is willing to study his lesson. 

19 He -was known to have left the city. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 55 

NOTES TO THE AUXILIARIES, ETC. 

BHT. PAST. FUTURE. 

*, do. have. vl, had. shall, v;ill 7 shall have. 

1 John walks — s makes the verb walks, indicative 
mood, PRESENT tense, third person singular. 

2 Boys d.o study — do forms the indicative mood, pre~ 
bent tense, of study. 

2 They ftflite studied — have is an auxiliary, making 
the verb studied, INDICATIVE PERFECT. 

3 David destroy-ed — ed (contraction of did; as destroy- 
did, or <ft<2 destroy, and denotes that the aet of destroy] 

is done or passed.) making the verb to which it is 
tached, INDIC. IMPERFECT. 

8 He had sold — had fpast tense of have) is an aux- 
iliary, forming the indicative, pluperfect, of sold. 

4 I *A#S go — shall, auxiliary verb, forming the indi- 
cative mood, future tense of go. 

5 They wdl return — will, auxiliary, forming the in- 
dicative mood, future tense of return. 

6 They w/dl have completed — will, an auxiliary, ex- 
pressing future time; and have denotes the perfect. 
Hence, uritt have denotes a future action that will be per- 
fected at a certain time; and forms the indicative, fu- 
ture perfect, third person plural of completed. 

7 (Ye) present arms — imperative mood. 

8 You can write — can, as an auxiliary, makes the word 
write in the potential, present, expressing possibility. 

He may have spoken — may, denotes possibility ; and 
have denotes a present completed, action. May have forms 
the potential perfect of spoken. En, at the termination 
of the verb spoken, shows it to be irregular. 

10 You should pay — should (past tense of shall) forms 
the potential imperfect of pay. 

11 She might have loved — might (past tense of may) 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

denotes possibility ; have, denotes past time : might have, 
forms the potential mood, pluperfect tense, of the verb 
love. 

12 If it rain — If is the subjunctive conjunction, mak- 
ing the verb rain in the subjunctive mood, present tense. 

14 If he has left — If is the subjunctive conjunction, 
making the verb left in the subjunctive mood; and has 
is an auxiliary verb, forming the perfect tense. 

15 If he were loved — If denotes subjunctive mood; 
and were forms the imperfect tense, passive voice. 

17 (If) he had paid — had, by its position, shows the 
omission of if, and makes the verb in the subjunctive 
pluperfect. 

18 Willing to study — to is an auxiliary, forming the 
infinitive mood, present tense. 

19 Known to have left — to, forms the infinitive mood ; 
and have makes it in the perfect or past tense. 



analysis of the verbs. 

The following method of anal} r sis is in accordance 
with the author's plan of analyzing Latin and Greek 
verbs ; and determines the mood and tense of a verb at 
once, not by a tedious and prolix conjugation, but by the 
form of the verb itself. 

It will be seen that the person and number of a verb 
are always determined by the nominative case, since the 
verb in English, unlike other languages, has no changes 
of termination to denote person and number, except in 
the second person singular, which takes t or st ; and the 
third person singular of the indicative present only, 
which takes s. 

The auxiliaries always denote the same thing in the 
same combination : thus, have, as an auxiliary, always in- 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 57 

dicates the perfect; — shall or will denotes future time;— : 
did or ed denotes the imperfect ; -ing, as a termination, 
indicates the present participle, when joined to the prin- 
cipal verb, and when used with the auxiliary, merely 
shows it to be part of the participle, the tense of which 
is pointed out by some other termination of the princi- 
pal verb. 

Any part of the verb to be, when used as an auxiliary, 
always indicates the passive voice, and, in some of its 
variations, serves also to point out the mood and tense. 

Let the student go over these exercises thoroughly, 
before committing the tables of conjugation, and he will 
find, when he does come to learn them, that he is already 
familiar with ail their changes, so that their acquisition 
will only require a slight effort of the memory in order 
to recollect their general arrangement. 



METHOD OF ANALYZING VERBS IN THE FOLLOWING 
EXERCISES. 

3d plu. pot. past. perf. pas. verb. reg. 

They might have been discover - ed. 

• 
Discover — the verb. 

- ed — makes the verb regular. 

been — denotes the passive voice. 

have — expresses the perfect tense. 

might — the potential past. 

(might have, potential past perfect, or pluperfect.) 

they — third person plural. 

Note. — Commencing at the right hand, or end of the verb, it will be 
seen that the verb is in the word discover ; it is made regular by the 
termination ed; the passive voice is in the word been; the perfect 
tense is in have; the pot. past is in might; and the person and num- 
ber in the pronoun they. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Analysis of Verbs. 
Lesson IX. 

1st sing, verb ind. pres. 

1 I hold a pen. 

2d sing, verb ind. pres. 2d sing. 

2 Thou behold - st the sun. 
3d sing. v. ind. pr. 3d sing. 

3 He hear - s a noise. 

1st plu. v. ind. pr. 

1 We employ servants. 

2d. plu. v. ind. pr. 

2 You #recommend the measure. 

3d plu. v. ind. pr. 

3 They steal horses. 

1st s. ind. pr. verb. 3d s. ind. pr. verb. 

I do love my book. He does not regard his word. 

1st plu. ind. pres. verb. 

We do not despise our servants. 

Ind. pr. 1st s. verb. Ind. pr. 2d sing. verb. 

Do I see my friend? Dost thou repent? 

1st s. ind?tmp. verb. 

I did - not write a letter. 

3d plu. ind. imp. verb. 3d s. verb. ind. imp. reg. 

The citizens did receive him. He lov - ed his country. 

3d plu. ind. perf. verb. reg. 3d sing. ind. perf. verb. 

They have just return-ed. He has gone to school. 

Ind. perf. 2d. sing. verb. 1st sing. ind. plup. verb. ir. 

Hast thou seen the man. I had tak-en advice. 

2d sing. ind. plup. verb. ir. 3d plu. ind. fut. verb. ir. 

Thou hadst know-n me. They shall soon retur-n. 

Ind. fut. 2d sing. verb. 1st sing. ind. fut. verb. 

Shalt thou quaff the wine? I will know the worst. 

Ind. fut. 2d sing. verb. 3d sing. ind. fut. perf. verb. 

Wilt thou hear my voice? He will have seen you. 

2d sing. ind. fut. perf. verb. reg. Pot. pres. 1 st sing. verb. 
Thou shalt have listen-ed. May I recite my lesson? 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 59 

3d sing. pot. pr. verb. 2d s. pot. past perf.* verb. 

He can tell the story. Thou might have done better. 

1st s. pot. perf. verb. 3d sing. pot. imp. verb. 

I may have been there. He should speak truth. 

Subj. 3d sing, verb pr. Subj. 2d plu. perf. verb. 

If he demand justice. If you have seen him. 

Verb, imperative. Inf. pres. verb. 

Stand firm! To receive his friends. 

3d sing, verb, ind. pr. inf. perf. verb. reg. 
He seems to have acquir -ed a good education. 

Passive Voice. 

Lesson X. 

1st s. ind. pres. pas. verb, reg. 2d sing. ind. pres. pas. verb, reg. 
I am inform-^. Thou art deceiv-ed. 

3d sing. ind. pr. pas. verb, ir. 3d plu. ind. pr. pas. verb, reg. 

He is know-n They are determin-ot 

1st plu. perf. ind pas. verb, reg. 2d pl T . ind. imp. pas. verb, reg. 
We have been received Yo . were resolv-ed 

1st sing. ind. plup. pas. verb, ir. 2d sing. pot. pres. pas. verb, reg. 
I had been sough-t Thou must be releas-ed. 

1st sing. pot. perf. pas. verb, reg. 
He may have been misinform-^. 

3d s. pot. imp. pas. verb. reg. 2d sing. pot. imp. pas. verb. ir. 
He would be delight - ed. Thou wouldst be see -n. 

3d plu. pot. past. perf.* pas. verb. reg. 
They might have been discover -ed. 

3d sing. pot. past, perf.* pas. verb. reg. 

The man should have been pardon -ed. 

3d sing. pot. past, perf.- pas. verb. ir. 
The lamb might have been shor -n. 

3d sing. pot. past, perf.* pas. verb. ir. 
The picture could have been draw -n. 

Subj. 3d sing. pas. pr. verb. reg. 

Unless a man be persuad -ed. 

Subj. 2d plu. pas. pr. verb. ir. 
Except ye be bor - n again. 

* Past perfect tense, i. e. : Pluperfect. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Subj. 3d plu. pastt perf* pas. verb. ir. 
"Whether they could have been slai-n. 

Imperative pr. pas. verb. reg. imperative, pas. pr. verb. reg. 
Be assur-ed Do not be alarm -ed. 

2d plu. v. ind. pr. inf. pr. pas. verb. reg. 

You are certain to be well receiv - ed. 

3d sing. ind. pr. pas. verb. inf. perf. pas. verb. reg. 
He is said to have been caution - ed. 

Verb. pres. participle. Verb. past. part. reg. 

Jjov - ing. Lov - ed. 

Perf. part. verb. past. reg. pas. pr. part. verb. reg. 
Hav - ing lov - ed. Be - ing lov - ed. 

Perf. part. pas. verb. reg. Perf. part. pas. verb. reg. 

Been lov - ed. Hav - ing been lov - ed. 

3d sing. ind. pr. pas. progressive participle.^ verb. ir. 
The house is (being) buil-t. 

3d sing. ind. pr. verb, progressive form. 
He is writ - ing a letter. 

Ind. fut. interrog. 1st sing, verb, progressive form. 

Shall I be § still speak - ing ? 



ON THE PRONOUN. 

The difference between a noun and pronoun is this ; 

the noun always has a single relation, while the pronoun 

has at least a double, and frequently a treble relation, the 

latter being always the case when the pronoun is a 

* Past perfect tense ; i. e., pluperfect. 

f This verb has the form of the potential, and would be of that 
mood, if it had 'not been preceded by the subjunctive conjunction, 
which always determines the mood. 

X The word being is used to express the progressive form of the verb ; 
as is built alone would denote a finished action. To say the house is 
building, is incorrect, since is building is a transitive verb, in the progres- 
sive form ; while the passive verb, in that form, is obviously required. 

§ The word be, with the participial termination of speak-ing, ex- 
presses the progressive form; and when united form the word be-ing, 
as in the above example, the house is being built. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 61 

compound relative ; and it is this complex relation that 
renders the pronoun more difficult to be disposed of 
than the noun. The relation of the noun is alwaj^s 
direct, while that of the pronoun is frequently indirect 
and not understood, or readily perceived by the student. 
For instance, in the sentence, " eat what is set before 
you/' i. e., eat the food which is set before you,) in which 
the word what, when resolved into its equivalent parts, has 
three distinct relations, the 6th, 8th, and 2d (food, 
6th relation ; which, 8th, as a pronoun, and 2d, for the 
case) ; the relations are natural and direct : but when 
we say, "He is the person whom I saw," the relation of 
whom, is saw whom, a position of words which sounds 
harsh and unnatural to the young scholar ; and it is for 
this very reason that so many errors are committed in 
using the pronoun. If the relation could Always be 
seen or understood, no person would use such incorrect 
expressions as, " It is mej" "this is the man who I lent 
the pen to ; " " these persons whom, more than all others, 
are censurable, etc., etc. 

The following exercises have been prepared especially 
to meet these difficulties, and it is hoped that if the stu- 
dent will give each pronoun its correct relation, as indi- 
cated by the figures placed before and after it, he will 
be enabled to comprehend its nature ; and if he will 
persevere until he transfers these principles to his mind, 
he will have mastered in a great degree the principal 
difficulties in parsing and correcting. 

Lesson XL 

1 *He 2 8 who 2 performs every part of his business in 
its due place and season, suffers no part of time to escape 
without profit. 

2 s He 2 8 that 2 overcomes his passions, conquers his 
greatest enemies. 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3 An error 8 that 2 propeeds from any good principle, 
leaves no room for resentment. 

4 Answer a fool according to 8 his 5 folly. 

5 John told James, on meeting 8 him, 6 that 8 he 2 had 
forfeited 8 his 5 claims to friendship. 

6 8 He? to 8 whom 1 8 I 2 owe 8 my 5 being, 8 whose 5 8 J 2 
am, and 8 whom 6 8 I 2 serve, is eternal. 

7 This is the friend 8 whom 6 8 I 2 love. 

8 8 Thou 2 8 who 2 hast been a witness to the fact, canst 
give 8 me 1 a true account of 8 itP 

Relation of the above Pronouns. 

1st sentence. (Man) 8 he 2 suffers. He 8 who 2 performs. 

2d sentence. (Man) 8 he 2 conquers. He 8 that 2 over- 
comes. 

3d sentence. Error 8 that 2 proceeds. 

4th sentence. Fool 8 his 5 folly. 

5th sentence. James 8 him; meeting him. 6 James 8 he 2 
had forfeited. James 8 his 5 friendship. 

6th sentence. (God) 8 he 2 is. (God) whom; 8 to whom. 7 
— (person) 8 1 2 owe — (person) 8 my 2 being. ( God) 8 whose 5 
(person) — (person) 8 I 2 am.* (God) whom; 8 serve whom. 6 
(person) 8 I 2 serve. 

7 Friend whom; 8 love whom 6 — (person) 8 I 2 love. 

8 (person) 8 thou 2 canst give. Thou, 8 who 2 hast been. 
—(person) me; 8 (to) me 7 — Fact, it; 8 of it. 7 



method of parsing. 



1 Relation — He 8 who 2 performs. 

Who is a pronoun, 3d person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, to agree with its antecedent he; and in the 
nominative case to performs. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 63 

Lesson XII. 

[The phrase, containing a relative pronoun, is invari- 
ably the complement of its antecedent.] 

1 8 What 2 * 2 can not be prevented, must be endured. 

2 Be attentive to 8 what 7,7 you are about. 

3 8 What 6 - 6 you do not hear to-day, you will not tell 
to-morrow. 

4 Mark Antony, when under adverse circumstances, 
made this interesting remark : " I have lost all, except 
8 what 7 - 6 I gave away. 

5 8 Whatever 2 - 2 gives pain to others, deserves not the 
name of pleasure. 

6 8 Whatsoever 2,e is set before you, eat. 

7 8 Whatever 2 « 2 is, is right. 

8 8 Whoever 2 - 2 is not contented in poverty, would not 
be so in -plenty. 

9 He who does not perform 8 what 6,6 he has promised, 
is a traitor to his friend. 

10 He speaks 8 as 6 \ 6 he thinks. 

11 Our father 8 who 2 art in heaven. 

12 8 What 6, 6 thou bidst, unargued I obey. 

Note. — The compound relative pronoun is always resolvable into 
the words that which, or the thing ivhich; thus — I speak what I know; 
i. e., I speak that which I know; in which case the antecedent part of 
the word what, thing, is always the subject of the principal proposi- 
tion; and the word which, with its accompanying words, if in the 
nominative, is a complement of the principal subject. 



ANALYSIS OF THE PRECEDING SENTENCES INTO — 

Subject, Predicate, Complements. 

1 8 What 2 - 2 (the evil 2 * which 2 ") can not be prevented, 
must be endured. 

Evil 2 which can not be prevented, 

MUST BE ENDURED. 

2 Be attentive to 8 what 7 - 7 (the thing 1 8 which' 7 ) you are 
about. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Subject. Predicate. Complements. 

Thou 2 

Be attentive To the thing which you are about. 
3 8 What 6 * 6 (the thing 6 8 which*) you do not hear to-day, 
you can not tell to-morrow. 
You 2 

can not tell the thing* to-morrow, 8 which 2 
you do not hear to-day. 

6 8 Whatever 2 * 2 (the thing 8 which 2 ) is, is right. 
. Thing 2 the, 8 which 2 is, 

is RIGHT. 
In like manner analyze the remaining sentences. 



METHOD 017 PARSING. 

1 " What can not be prevented must be endured." 
What — is a compound relative pronoun, equal to 
the evil which. 

Syntax of evil ; evil must be endured. 

[Parse evil like cloud, page 34.] 

Syntax of which ; evil, which can be prevented. 

[Parse which like who, page 62.] 

on the conjunction. 

Lesson XIII. 
Conjunctions of the 15th Relation. 

1 John and 15 James are studious boys. 

2 The good and 15 wise are truly happy. 

3 The indolent and 15 indifferent accomplish little. 

4 The falls of Niagara are situated between the Amer- 
ican and 15 Canadian shores. 

5 Honesty and 15 virtue elevate mankind. 

6 Water and 15 oil will not combine. 

7 You and 15 I are friends. 

8 Every person is either* good or 15 bad. 

9 The assertion was neither * wholly true nor 15 false. 



10 Ellen or 15 Jane can demonstrate the problem. 



* Corresponding conjunction. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 65 



Conjunctions of the \§th Relation. 

1 Though 26 he was rich, yet 16 for our sakes, he be- 
came paor. 

2 Blessed are the meek, for 16 they shall inherit the 
earth. 

3 You are happy, because 16 you are good. 

4 There was a certain householder, who planted a 
vineyard, and 16 hedged it round about, and 16 digged a 
wine-press in it, and 16 built a tower, and 16 let it out to 
husbandmen, and 16 went into a far country. 

5 It came to pass in those days, that 16 he went out 
into a mountain to pray. 

6 Consider the ravens; they neither sow nor 16 reap. 

7 I am well pleased with your efforts, but 16 1 can not 
remunerate you. 

8 He was determined to go, notwithstanding 16 the 
weather was inclement. 

9 I should be pleased if 16 I could meet you there. 

10 We wandered through the groves, as 16 we sung our 
songs. 

Adverbial Conjunctions* 

1 I will pay vou when 16 I have received my money. 

2 We looked where 16 the tumbling waters leaped from 
the rocky precipice. 

3 We paused when 16 we reached the boundary line. 

4 I have seen little boys express themselves in good 
language, while 16 older persons have hesitated or used 
very awkward speeches. 

* Every proposition commencing with an adverbial conjunction is a 
complement of the predicate in the principal proposition. That these 
words are conjunctions is obvious from the nature of their relation. 
Many words, usually considered as conjunctions, have sometimes the 
relation of adverbs. 
6 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PREPOSITIONAL CONJUNCTIONS .* 

1 I shall not be able to see you until 16 I return. 

2 He was not aware of the fact before 1B he received 
my letter. 

3 I did not recognize him till 16 he had ceased speak- 
ing. 

4 I can not tell you without 16 I see the article. 

Relation of the preceding conjunctions, of the 16th relation. 

-, | He became poor though 16 he was sick. 

1 He was rich yet 16 he became poor. 

2 Meek are blessed for 16 they shall inherit earth. 

8 You are happy because 16 you are good. 

4 Who planted vineyard, and 16 {who) hedged it. 

{who) hedged it, * and 16 {who) digged wine-press. 
{who) digged wine-press, and 16 {who) built tower. 

(who) built tower, and 16 {who) let it out. 

{who) let it out, and 16 {who) went. 

5 It came (to pass) that 16 he went. 

6 They sow nor 16 (they) reap. 

7 I am (pleased,) but 16 I can (not) remunerate you. 

8 He was (determined,) notwithstanding 16 weather was. 

9 I should be pleased, if 16 I could meet you. 
10 We wandered as 16 we sung. 

Relation of Adverbial Conjunctions. 

1 I will pay you when 16 I receive money. 

2 We looked where 16 waters leapt. 

3 We paused when 16 we reached the boundary line. 

4 I have seen boys (to) express themselves while 16 (older) persons 

have hesitated. 

Relation of Prepositional Conjunctions. 

1 I shall (not) be able to see you until 16 I return. 

2 He was not aware before 16 he received letter. 

3 I did (not) recognize him till 16 he had ceased speaking. 

4 lean (not) tell you without 16 I see (the) article. 

* Prepositions are often used to connect verbs of like moods and 
tenses, etc., when they certainly appear to have the force of conjunc- 
tions ; but if we supply the ellipses, we can give these words the rela- 
tion of prepositions; thus — "I shall not be able to see you until the 
time when I return :" until would then be a preposition and govern 
time. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 67 

ON THE PREPOSITION. 

Note. — The relation of the preposition is rarely understood, even 
by professed grammarians. Smith gives this sentence — " James found 
his hat in the road;" and proceeds to say that in is a preposition, 
showing a relation between hat and road. A moment's reflection will 
suffice to convince any one of the error of this relation. If the pre- 
positional phrase in the road has a relation to the noun, hat, it must be 
an adjective relation ; for every preposition that holds a relation to an 
antecedent noun, converts its phrase into a virtual adjective; thus— 
"the jessamine in flower;" i. e., the flowery jessamine; "the book of 
fate;" i. e., fatal book. Now, what attribute of hat is the phrase in the 
road ? None at all. On the other hand, if it has a relation to found, 
that relation must be adverbial; and this we find to be true. Where 
did he find the hat ? Ans. In the road. Hence, in the road is an ad- 
verbial phrase, qualifying found, and is, virtually, an adverb of place. 
Every grammarian would see at once that in the road is a complement 
or modifier of found, and not of hat. In addition to the two relations 
of the preposition given in the Table on page 28, there are two other 
relations, auxiliary adjective and auxiliary adverbial, as will be seen by 
reference to the article on Prepositions, page 135, in the second part 
of this work. As these relations, however, seldom occur, and are, 
virtually, either auxiliary adjectives or adverbs, it has been thought 
unnecessary to include them in the Table. 

Lesson XIV. 

1 His character is above 14 reproach. 

2 They found the boat by 14 the shore. 

3 These people followed directly in the footsteps of 13 
their ancestors. 

4 India-rubber is made from the gum of 13 a tree. 

5 The tree is at quite a distance from 13 the wall. 

6 He has been removed from 14 office. 

7 The poor man is beside 14 himself. 

8 By 14 this time the ship should have arrived. 

9 He is the person to 14 whom I gave the book. 

10 He had an extreme, aversion to 13 gaming. 

11 An addition to 13 the house was contemplated. 

12 Idle people sometimes live without 14 labor. 

13 Small creeks flow into 14 larger streams. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

14 The governor resides in 14 this house. 

15 Ye shall not go £fter 14 other gods. 

16 The world was all before 14 them. 

17 They wept for 14 joy. He died in 14 debt. 

18 To him of 13 * poetical notoriety I gave the pen. 

19 We win no friends by living in 14 f solitude. 

20 She was angry with 19 J her brother. 

21 He was zealous in 19 $ the pursuit of knowledge. 

22 They were anxious about 19 J the matter. 

23 Go quickly, by 20 § all means. 

24 He speaks well 20 § on some occasions. 

All prepositions marked 14 have a relation to the verb 
or participle ; all marked 13 have a relation to the noun 
or pronoun. 



ON THE AUXILIARY ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, ETC. 

Note. — As the auxiliary verbs are used for no other purpose than to 
form the moods and tenses of other verbs, and are never denominated 
adverbs, although they are invariably added to a verb, so these aux- 
iliary adjectives and adverbs, which are used in forming the degrees 
of comparison in the adjective or adverb, never can become adverbs, 
as not one of them can be added to a verb. We shall proceed to show 
that the adverb and the auxiliary adverbs and adjectives are distinct 
parts of speech, the adverb invariably holding the 12th relation, or 
being added to a verb, while the auxiliaries always hold either the 
19th, 20th, or 21st relation. Now, as 12 can never equal either 19, 
20, or 21, separately or combined, so the adverb can never equal a 
relation which is as much distinct and separate from it as these figures 
are from one another. 

Lesson XV. 

1 The weather is extremely 19 warm. 1 

2 The wall is very 19 high. 1 

3 The wall is sixty-feet 19 high. 1 

_ _ 

* Adjective relation to the pronoun, 
t Adverbial relation to the participle. 
X Auxiliary adjective (19th relation). 
£ Auxiliary adverbial (20th relation). 






EXERCISES IN PARSING. 69 

4 The sun is a thousand-times™ larger 1 than the earth. 

5 Down, deep 1 in the main, full-many -a-score-fathom 19 
thy frame shall decay. 

„ [Thy frame shall decay down, in the full-many -a-score- 
fathom 19 deep 1 main.] 

G He paid the note more-than-a-year 20 ago. 12 

7 The mercury is ten-degrees 21 below 14 zero. 

8 It is more- than -three -thousand -miles 21 across the 



ocean 



14 



9 The 20 more 12 I examine it, the ™ better 12 I like it. 

10 His raiment became exceedingly 19 white. 1 

11 John is iciser 1 than his brother. 

12 John is more 19 wise 1 than his brother. 

13 John is the most 19 learned x boy in the school. 

14 James runs more 20 rapidly 12 than William. 

15 But Henry runs most 20 rapidly. 12 

16 The coat is too 19 large. 1 

17 This coat is very 19 large. 1 

18 This coat is a-world-too 19 large. 1 

19 She is as 19 tall 1 as her sister. 

- 20 He is less 19 wise x than his brother. 

21 And the least 19 esteemed 1 of his associates. 

22 He came near 2l to 14 the edge of the precipice. 

Note. — If any of these auxiliaries be used in a sentence, they will, 
by the very law of their nature and inherent relations, immediately 
attach themselves to their principals, and become auxiliaries. Again, 
a word which is a legitimate adverb, holding the 12th relation, quali- 
fying a verb or participle, can not be used as an auxiliary. 

The moon smiles serenely 12 
He acted cautiously 12 

$£§** " The word very, exceedingly, or any other word of similar im- 
port, when joined to an adjective, forms, what grammarians term the 
superlative of eminence, to distinguish it from the superlative of compari- 
son. — Lindlay Murray. 



70 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



List of Abbreviations used in the following exercises, 
and other parts of this work. 



n., noun. 

a, com., common. 
p., prop., proper. 
m., mas., masculine. 
f., fern., feminine. 
n., neut., neuter. 

2, second person. 

3, third person. 
S., sing., singular. 
pi., plu., plural. 
nom., nominative. 
pos., possessive. 
obj., objective. 
ace, accusative. 
abs., absolute. 
ind., independent. 
v., ver&. 



reg., regular. 
ir., irregular. 
tr., transitive. 
in., int., intransitive. 
pas., passive. 
ind., indicative. 
pot., potential. 
sub., subjunctive. 
inf., infinitive. 
im., imperative. 
pr., pres., present. 
perf., perfect. 
imp., imperfect. 
plup., pluperfect. 
fut., 1st future. 
2 fut., 2d future. 
No., number. 



pers., person. 
gen., gender. 
adj., adjective. 
pron., pronoun. 
adv., adverb. 
prep., preposition . 
conj., conjunction. 
int., interjection. 
part., participle. 
p. p., personal pronoun. 
r. p., relative pronoun. 
aux., auxiliary. 
subj., subject. 
pred., predicate. 
comp., complement. 
att., attribute. 
cop., copula. 



Additional Exercises in Parsing. 

adv. v. ir.in. ind. imp. 3 s. adj. n. c. f. 3 s. nom. adv. 



1 Now 12 



came 



still ] 



on; 



evening 2 

conj. n. c. f. 3 s. nom. adj. aux. v. prep. p. p. pos. adj. 

2 And 16 twilight 2 graj^had 18 in u 8 her 5 sober 1 
n. c. n. 3 s. obj. adj. n. c. n. 3 pi. ace. v. ir. tr. ind. plup. 3 s. 

livery 7 all 1 things 6 clad. 10 

n. c. f. 3 s. nom. v. reg. tr. ind. imp. 3 s. p. p. ace. 

3 Silence 2 accompanied 10 ( 6 ) 

conj. n. c. n. 3 s. nom. conj. n. c. n 3 s. nom. v. ir. in. ind. imp. 3 p. 

4 For 16 beast 2 and 15 bird were 18 sunk. 9 

p. p. nom. prep. p. p. pos. adj. n. c. n. 3 s. obj. 

8 They 2 to 14 8 their ^grassy 1 couch, 7 " " 

adj. prep. p. p. pos. n. c. n. 3 pi. obj. adj. 

These 1 (_*) to 14 Hheir 5 nests 7 — all 1 " 

In like manner let the student mark on the blackboard all the words 
in the following sentences : 

5 But 16 the x wakeful 1 nightingale, 2 

( 18 12 9 \ 

6 8 She 2 all-night-long 12 8 her 5 amorous 1 descant 6 sung. 10 

7 Silence 2 was pleased. 11 

8 Now 12 glowed 9 the 1 firmament 2 with 1 * living 1 
sapphires. 7 



PARSING ON THE BLACKBOARD. 71 

9 Hesperus 2 [Hhat 2 led 10 the 1 starry 1 host 6 ] rode 9 
brightest, 1 

10 Till 16 the 1 moon, 2 rising 19 in 14 clouded 1 majesty, 7 
at length 12 unvailed 10 8 her 5 peerless 1 light; 6 

11 And 16 x 2 o'er 14 the 1 dark 7 sher 5 sil- 
ver 1 mantle 6 threw. 10 

12 When 16 Adam 2 ( 10 ) thus 12 to 14 Eve, 7 

13 Pair 1 consort 3 the 1 hour 2 of 13 night 7 and 15 all 1 
things 2 now 12 retired 1 - 9 to 14 rest, 7 mind 10 8 us 6 of 14 like 1 
repose. 7 

14 Since 16 God 2 hath set 10 labor 7 and 15 rest 7 

15 As 16 ( 2 18 10 ) day 6 and 15 night 6 

to 14 men 7 successive. 1 

16 And 16 the 1 timely 1 dew 2 of 13 sleep 7 now 12 falling 1 - 9 
with 14 soft 1 slumbrous 1 weight 7 inclines 10 8 our 5 eyelids. 6 

17 Other 1 creatures 2 all-day-long 12 rove 9 idle 1 — un- 
employed, 1 

18 And 16 ( 1 ' 2 ) less 1 need 10 

rest. 6 

19 Man* 2 hath 10 8 his 5 daily 1 work 6 of 13 body 7 or 15 
of 18 mind 7 appointed, 1 - 9 

20 8 Which 2 declares 10 8 his 5 dignity, 6 

21 And 16 (._ 2 10 ) the 1 regard 6 of 13 

heaven 7 8 on 5 all 1 8 his 5 ways ; 7 • 

22 While 12 other 1 animals 2 unactive x range, 9 

23 And 16 of 13 their 8 - 5 doings 7 Godi takes 10 no 1 ac- 
count. 6 

24 To-morrow, 12 [ere 16 fresh 2 morning 2 18 

streak 10 the 1 east, 6 with 14 first 1 approach 7 of 13 light 7 ] 

25 8 We 2 must 18 be 9 risen, 1 

26 And ( 2 _ 18 9 ) at 14 

8 our 5 pleasant 1 labor 7 to reform, 10 yon 1 flowery 1 arbors, 6 
^yonder 1 alleys 6 green, 1 8 our 5 walk 7 at 13 noon 7 with 14 
branches 7 overgrown. 1 - 9 

27 8 That 2 mock 10 8 our 5 scant 1 manuring, 6 

28 And 16 require 10 more J hands 6 



72 I ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

29 Than 16 8 ours, 5 (i. e., than our hands are,) to lop 10 
8 their 5 wanton 1 growth. 6 

30 Those 1 blossoms, 2 also, 12 and 15 those 1 dropping 1 
gums 2 [ 8 that 2 lie 9 bestrown, 1 unsightly 1 and 15 un- 
smooth, 1 ] ask 10 riddance, 6 

31 If 16 8 we 2 mean 10 to tread 9 with 14 ease. 7 

32 Meanwhile 12 [ 8 as 6 * nature 2 wills 10 ] night 2 bids 10 
8 us 6 (to) rest. 9 

33 To 14 8 whom 7 thus 12 Eve 2 (said 10 ) with 14 perfect 1 
beauty 7 adorned, 1 * 11 

34 8 My 5 author 3 and 15 disposer, 3 

35 8 What 6 8 thou 2 bidst, 10 unargued 1 8 I 2 obey. 10 

[35 8 I 2 obey, 10 the 1 unargued 1 thing 6 8 which 6 8 thou 2 
bidst. 10 ] 

36 8 So 6 God 2 ordains. 10 

37 With 14 8 thee 7 conversing, 1 - 9 8 I 2 forget 10 all 1 time, 6 
all x seasons 6 and 15 8 their 5 change. 6 

38 All 1 ( 2 ) please 10 ( 6 ) alike. 12 

39 Sweet 1 is 9 the 1 breath 2 of 13 morn, 7 

40 8 Her 5 rising 2 ( 9 ) sweet 1 with 14 charm 7 of 13 

earliest 1 birds. 7 

41 Pleasant 1 ( 9 ) the 1 sun 2 

42 When 16 first 12 on 14 this 1 delightful 1 land 7 8 he 2 
spreads 10 8 his 5 orient 1 beams, 6 on 14 herb, 7 tree, 7 fruit 7 
and 15 flower, 7 glistening 1 - 9 witti 14 dew. 7 

43 Fragrant 1 4__ 9 ) the 1 fertile 1 earth 2 after 14 soft 1 
showers, 7 

44 And 16 sweet 1 ( 9 ) the 1 coming-on 2 of 13 grateful 1 

evening 7 mild; 1 

45 Then 16 silent 1 night 2 (_ 9 ) with 14 this 1 8 her 5 sol- 
emn 1 bird, 7 and 15 ( 14 ) this 1 fair 1 morn, 7 and 15 

these, 1 the 1 gems 7 of 13 heaven, 7 8 her 5 starry 1 train. 7 

. • 

* As, relative pronoun, equivalent to the word which ; i. e., " which 
nature wills." It may be observed that the word wills is a transitive verb, 
and, as such, requires an object. If we consider as a conjunction, wills 
can have no object. The same construction occurs in the 36th sen- 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 73 



SUGGESTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS. 

It will be seen that the first part of this work is al- 
most exclusively practical ; and it is suggested that the 
teacher make use of it in the following manner. After 
having gone over the promiscuous examples on the 
plate, and in the black-board exercises, let the classes 
commence at page 49, and, for two or three lessons, 
parse nothing but adjectives, or words of the first rela- 
tion, at the same time directing their attention particu- 
larly to the description of the adjective contained in 
the second part. After the adjective is well understood 
let them review the same three lessons, commencing 
at page 49, parsing nothing but nouns, their attention 
being called, in the mean time, especially to the noun 
and its accidents in the second part. Then let the verb, 
with all its moods, tenses, variations, etc., be the object 
of the pupils' consideration, for several lessons, until 
they shall thoroughly understand all that is contained 
in the lessons, commencing on page 50, and continuing 
to page 62, the conjugation, and general description of 
the verb in the second part being well studied at the 
same time. Let each student be required, particularly, 
to change each transitive verb in these exercises, into its 
passive form, and parse it as such. In like manner go 
over the pronouns, conjunctions, adverbs, prepositions, 
etc., and it will be found that the scholar will acquire a 
more perfect and correct idea of the parts of speech 
and their accidents when the mind is directed to one 
only, at a time, thus concentrating and fixing the at- 
tention upon a single point, than by continuing a pro- 
miscuous course of exercises. In a similar manner the 
scholars should parse and correct false syntax. 

tence; "So God ordains." As stands for the phrase, "night bids us 
rest;" and so stands for the preceding clause, "what thou bidst," etc. 

7 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

AXIOMS, 

Founded on the Table of Relations, page 28. 

1 Every word having the first relation is an adjective. 

2 Words, having the 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, or 7th re- 
lation, are nouns or pronouns. 

3 Every word having the 8th relation, is a pronoun. 

4 All words of the 9th, 10th, or 11th relation, are 
verbs. 

5. All words holding the 12th relation, are adverbs. 

6 A word having the 13th or 14th relation, is a pre- 
position. 

7 All words of the 15th or 16th relation, are conjunc- 
tions. 

8 A word, having no relation, (17) is an interjection. 

9 All words of the 18th, 19th, 20th, and 21st relation, 
are auxiliaries. 

10 Any word, having none of the above relations, is 
no part of speech, whatever. 

Note. — Analysis is a separation of any whole into its parts. Now 
let all the words in the English language constitute the whole to be 
analyzed : then let the Table of Relations on page 28 be the measure 
or guide for referring all these words to their respective classes; (i. e. 
adjective, noun, verb, etc.,) and the proposition that every word, which 
holds the first relation on that table, is an adjective, (not an article or 
pronoun,) will be self-evident, for this reason, that all etymological dis- 
tinctions, not founded on these relations, will instantly vanish like the 
baseless fabric of a vision. 



PART II. 



ENGLISH GEAMMAU. 



English Grammar treats of the nature and 
structure of -the English language.* 

Grammar, derived from rpafifxatsv^ (Grammateus,') -a 
writer, in a comprehensive sense, signifies the capacity or 
ability to write or speak a language in such a manner 
as will give to each word and phrase in the sentence that 
constructive relation to the other words in the same sen- 
tence whieh the universal consent of all men using the 
same language has assigned to them ; but, in a more 
confined and technical sense, 

Grammar is that science which presents the construc- 
tive principles of the language or languages of which it 
treats : (from the Latin con, together ; struere, to build ;) 
therefore, a work which purports to be a " Treatise on 
Grammar," ought rather to point out clearly this con- 
structive relation, which exists among the words in a 
sefftence, and by virtue of which they become parts of 

What is the definition of English grammar given on this page? 
From what is gramma?- derived ? What does grammar present? From 
what is constructive derived ? 



* This is believed to be more in accordance with' the true intent and 
import of language than the commonly received definition that " Gram- 
mar is the art of speaking and writing a language correctly." Spoken 
language is not artificial; it is the natural attribute of human beings. 
Written language, with its arbitrary signs, letters, points, etc., may 
very properly be considered artificial; but grammar treats of both 
spoken and written language — both the natural and the artificial pe- 
culiarities of speech; hence the necessity of a definition sufficiently 
broad to comprehend the two under one distinct head. 

■ (75) 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

speech, than to be a mere transcript of definitions and rules 
from the grammars of antiquity ! which are of but little 
use in guiding the student in the structure of his sen- 
tences, or in "writing and speaking the language with 
propriety." And here let the student be admonished, 
that no person has ever yet been able either to speak or 
write correctly, who was ignorant of the actual relation 
or natural dependence which is found to exist between 
the w T ords and members of a sentence, and which it is 
the peculiar province of the grammarian to make clear 
and plain. 

Language (derived from the Latin word Lingua, the 
tongue ,) is the faculty of communicating our thoughts to 
others, by pronouncing or writing certain words, which 
the universal consent of mankind has agreed should 
stand for a fixed and definite idea. 

Grammar is naturally divided into four parts : 

ORTHOGRAPHY, SYNTAX, ETYMOLOGY, PROSODY, 

LETTERS, SENTENCES, WORDS,- ACCENT. 

Orthography teaches the method of expressing 
words by their appropriate letters. 

Orthography, derived from the Greek words op06$ 
(orthos) correct, and ypd$o (grapho) to write, signifies writ- 
ing, or spelling correctly ; and as spelling is always 
taught in our schools by books or dictionaries, prepared 
expressly for this purpose, it would be useless to add 
any thing further concerning it in this place. 

Syntax is the union of words in a sentence. 
Syntax, from the Greek avv (syn), together, and tie^i 
(tithemi), to put or place, signifies the putting together of 

What is language? From what is language derived? Into how 
many parts is grammar divided ? What are those parts ? What is 
orthography?. How is it learned? From what is it derived ? What 
is syntax? From what is it derived? 



SYNTAX. 77 

words in a sentence. It is obvious, that if ideas in lan- 
guage were expressed by single, detached words, instead 
of sentences, there could be no such thing as Syntax : 
hence' it is, that the etymology of a word depends upon 
the syntax or relation of that word to some other word 
or words in the sentence, rather than on obsolete and 
arbitrary rules and definitions, which serve only to ren- 
der the study of grammar more dark and mysterious; 
and for this reason syntax should have precedence be- 
fore etymology, as it is only by the relation (or sjmtax) 
of a word that we can determine its etymological classi- 
fication. Let syntax be well understood, and etymology 
will follow, as a matter of course. Syntax is one of the 
first things in grammar, the nature of which should be 
thoroughly explained to the learner. Let us instance 
the following sentence : 

" The midnight moon serenely smiles." 
The syntax of the is the moon: in other words, the be- 
longs to moon. Now, whatever we may call the as a 
part of speech, whether an adjective, an article, or an 
add-noun, it matters nothing ; its syntax, relation, or 
connection will remain always the same, founded, as it is, 
upon the principles of the language itself, and offering 
nothing about which grammarians can in the least disa- 
gree ; as every one must see that it has an unquestion- 
able relation to moon. Midnight has also a relation to 
moon, and is constituted an adjective by virtue of such 
relation. Moon has a syntax with smiles, a relation 
clearly indicating that it is a noun in the nominative. 
Serenely must be joined to smiles: we can not say serenely 
moon, and preserve the sense of the sentence ; hence we 
learn that syntax is but the common-sense rendering of 

Does the etymology of a word depend on its syntax ? Is syntax an 
important part of grammar? Can you give the syntax (or relation^ 
of the words in the sentence " The midnight moon serenely smiles ? 
(See plate, page 33.) 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

words, having nothing to do with arbitrary rules and 
definitions. As by this relation, we add serenely to a 
verb, we call it an adverb. Smiles is connected with 
moon, and in giving the syntax the pupil will say moon 
smiles; and whatever etymological attributes we may 
ascribe to the word smiles, is of little consequence, the 
syntactic relation will always remain an indisputable 
fact, imprinting upon the mind of the young learner 
ideas which time shall never obliterate, although rules 
and etymological definitions be buried long ago in the 
rubbish of oblivion. 

Etymology treats of the various parts of speech, 
their declensions and modifications. 

Etymology, from the Greek itvpov (etymon), a true root, 
and Yoyos' (logos), a word, signifies the true root or deriva- 
tion of words. Its grammatical signification, however, 
does not only include this idea, but extends the meaning 
to the classification of words as well as their derivation 
and signification. 

Etymology, therefore, may be considered, 

1, as the arrangement of words into various classes, 

called parts of speech, and the consequent orders 
or methods of parsing ; 

2, the formation and derivation of adjectives, adverbs, 

etc. ; and the declension and conjugation of nouns, 
verbs, etc. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Theee are eight parts of speech — noun, ad- 
jective, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, con- 
junction and interjection. 

What is etymology? From what is it derived? To what is its 
grammatical signification extended? Into what two parts may ety- 
mology be divided? How many parts of speech are there? What are 

they? 



xoux. 79 

Some authors also include the article as a distinct part 
of speech; but as it is only a word of the adjective 
variety, it is deemed unnecessary to give it a distinct 
classification. See page 86. 



THE NOUN. 

A noun is the name of a person, place or thing, 
as John, Boston, book. 

2sTottn, from the Latin nomen, a name, signifies the 
naming word, or subject of the sentence. This. is particu- 
larly so when the noun is in the nominative (also from 
nomen) or naming case. 

Relations and Cases of the Noun. 
Nouns have six relations, and six* corresponding 
cases, as follows : 

CASE. RELATION. 

Singular. Plural. 



1st. Nominative. 




man walks. men walk. 


2d. Possessive. 




man's horse. men's horse. 


3d. Objective. 




tO MAN. to MEN. 


4th. Accusative.t 




saw man. saw men. 


5th. Independent. 





or ah man. or ah men. 


6th. Absolute. 




man being killed, men being k 



By the foregoing table we learn — the nominative case 
precedes a verb ; the possessive precedes a noun, and 
always employs the apostrophe ( ' ) and s in the singu- 
lar, and the apostrophe placed after the s in the plural; 

What is a noun ? From what is it derived ? How many relations 
mid corresponding cases have nouns? Repeat them. What do we 
learn by this declension of the noun ? 



5 The three additional cases can not be considered an innovation 
upon established grammatical precedent, inasmuch as they have 
always been recognized under the names of nominative and objective. 

t Or objective, if the teacher prefer, and governed by the verb saw. 



80 • ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the objective follows a preposition ; the accusative fol- 
lows a transitive verb; the independent follows an 
interjection ; and the absolute precedes a participle. 
Hence, the noun can have no syntactic relation with a 
pronoun, an adverb, an adjective or conjunction, as a de- 
pendent on any one <of them for a case. 

Observation. 
It is of the utmost importance that the scholar should 
learn, at an early period, to distinguish the cases of 
nouns and pronouns ; nor should he ever be permitted 
to omit the case, as some grammarians have recom- 
mended, although he may not be advanced as far as a 
knowledge of the verb. As the case of a noun can 
never be determined by the declension, and in no other 
way than by the relation, it follows that no word can 
have a case until it becomes incorporated in a sentence; 
hence the absurdity of requiring the scholar to give the 
cases of detached nouns ; as book, books, book's, etc. 

The Possessive Case. 

The possessive case presents many peculiarities. We 
see that it has the same relation to the noun that an 
adjective has ; for this reason, some authors call it an 
adjective. The s is thought to be a contraction of his, 
as indicated by the apostrophe, which is always used to 
denote the omission of letters ; John's book being but a 
contraction of John his book. Another peculiarity of 
the possessive case is its resemblance to the genitive in 
Latin, which is often translated into English by the 
preposition of; as pater patriae, father of his country ; 
liber pueri, the book of the boy (i. e., the boy's book) : hence 
nearly all phrases, following the preposition of, are simi- 

How is the case of a noun determined? What other word has a re- 
lation like the possessive case? What is said about the apostrophe 
and 5 ? What other peculiarity is there about the possessive case ? 



KOUN. 81 

lar in their nature to nouns in the possessive case, and 
always hold an adjective relation (like the possessive) to 
some noun or pronoun. 

The rule for using the apostrophe is here subjoined. 

If the noun is in the possessive case, singular number, 
add an apostrophe and s, as John, — John's. If the noun 
is possessive plural, and already ends in s, add an apos- 
trophe only, as boys, — boys'; if possessive plural, not 
ending in 5, add the apostrophe and s, as men, — men's. 

DISTINCTION. 

Nouns are either proper or common. 

A common noun is one including within its extension 
a whole race, genus or species; as man, country, tree, 
animal. 

A proper noun is one whose extension is limited to a 

single individual ; as George, William, Albany, Boston, 

Hudson, Hsecla, etc. 

It may be well to observe that proper nouns always commence with 
a capital letter ; but this does not at all times distinguish them from 
the common noun, which, also, often commences with a capital, par- 
ticularly at the beginning of sentences. 



GENDERS. 



There are three genders — the masculine, femi- 
nine and neuter : the masculine denotes males ; 
the feminine, females; and all other nouns are 
neuter. 

In some other languages inanimate objects are con- 
sidered either masculine or feminine, particularly in 
French and Spanish, in which all nouns are either mas- 
culine or feminine, there being no neuter gender. 

What is the rule for the use of the apostrophe ? What distinction 
have nouns? What is a common noun? A proper noun? Do proper 
nouns always commence with a capital? How many genders are 
there ? What are they ? What is said of gender in other languages ? 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Inanimate objects are sometimes considered masculine 
or feminine by personification (a figure of speech, by 
which life and action are attributed to them), or by the 
relation of some adjective, verb, or pronoun, indicating 
the gender or class. 

Gray twilight had clad all things in her sober livery. 

Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising sweet. 

Pleasant is the sun, when he spreads his orient beams. 

Twilight is personified by had clad, and gender desig- 
nated by her. 

Sun, masculine, personified by spreads, gender desig- 
nated by he and his. 

Twilight, her, feminine, by personification. 

Morn, her, do. do. 

Sun, he, masculine, do. 

There are, also, a few words, as parent, friend, cousin, 
relation, stranger, child, etc., of the common gender. 

It would be unnecessary to .add here the methods by 
which the scholar may distinguish the genders of nouns, 
as any person who understands the English language 
needs no such assistance to distinguish males and 
females by their appropriate names. 



PERSONS. 

There are three persons, denominated first, 
second and third ; the first denotes the speaker ; 
the second, the person spoken to i and the third, 
the person spoken of. 

The first person is only applied to the personal pro- 
nouns, I, mine, me ; we, ours, us; and the relatives stand- 
ing for them. The second person is always in the inde- 



Is gender sometimes ascribed to inanimate objects in English ? In 
what manner? How many persons are there? What are they? To 
what are they applied? What case is the 2d person? 






NOUN. 83 

pendent case, and is preceded by the interjection 0, or 
ah, (or some other word, in hailing,) either expressed or 
understood. See " Eelations and cases of nouns," p. 
79. As a general rule we may say that the independ- 
ent case alone is 2d person, and all other cases of nouns 
are of the third person. 



NUMBERS. 

Nouns have two numbers, singular and plural : 
the singular denotes but one object; the plural, 
any number of objects greater than one. 

In writing, the plural of nouns is generally formed by 
adding s to the singular ; as book, books ; pen, pens ; day, 
days. 

Nouns ending in s, sh, ch, x, or o, in the singular, form 
their plural by adding es ; as dr ess r dresses; dish, dishes; 
match, matches ; box, boxes ; hero, heroes. 

Nouns ending in y, change y to ies for the plural ; as 
lady, ladies ; but when a yowel occurs before the y, an s 
is merely added for the plural ; as tray, trays ; day, days. 

Nouns in / or fe change / or fe to ves for the plural ; 
as loaf, loaves ; wife, wives. 

Observations. 

When ch is pronounced like k, at the termination of 
words, the plural adds merely an s ; as pibroch, pibrochs ; 
stomach, stomachs. 

Portico, solo, quarto, grotto, tyro, junto, canto, and all 
nouns ending in io, take s only in the plural ; as nuncio, 
nuncios; grotto, grottos, etc. 

Nouns ending in ff (except staff, which has sometimes 
staves), take s, as cuff, cuffs. 

Scarf, dwarf, brief, grief, chief, gulf, fife, strife, handker- 

How many numbers are there ? What are they ? How are plu**ls 
formed ? 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

chief \ mischief, proof, hoof roof and reproof, do not change 
/ or fe into ves. 

Proper nouns have no plural form, except when a 
race or family is indicated, as the Browns, the William- 
sons, the Jews, the Turks, etc. Swiss, British, English, 
Dutch, are always plural, the singular being Switzer, 
Briton, Englishman and Dutchman. 

We also write, the Messrs. Brown, meaning two or 
more of that name ; the two Miss Watsons, or the Misses 
Watson ; the corner of State, and Main street, and not 
streets, there being but one State street, and one Main 
street, in any one place. Observe the comma after State, 
indicating the elliptical absence of street. 

Many nouns form their plural irregularly ; as — 
Sing. Plu. Sing. Plu. 

man, men. child, children, 

woman, women. tooth, teeth, 

foot, feet. penny, pence, 

etc., etc. etc., etc., 

An extended list of which need not be given, as every 
child that can read or spell knows how to form irregu- 
lar plurals as well as those that, are regular. 

Some words have no plural, as wealth, drunkenness, hay, 
poverty, etc. Some others have no singular, as arms, (wea- 
pons,*) antipodes, etc. Some nouns are the same in the 
singular as plural ; as sheep, deer, swine, etc. We my pease 
and fish, meaning the species, but peas and fishes when 
speaking of any specified number. This latter rule is 
not always observed, peas and fish being used at all 
times. Snuffers, scissors, tongs, etc., are always used in 
the plural ; and mathematics, pneumatics, politics, ethics, 
are singular. 

Many nouns from foreign languages retain their origi- 
nal form of the plural ; as radius, radii; focus, foci; da- 
Do proper names have a plural ? Do some nouns form their plural 
irregularly? Give some examples. Are there some words which 
have no plural ? 



ADJECTIVE. 85 

turn, data; erratum, errata; calx, calces, etc., for a perfect 
knowledge of which the student is referred to those lan- 
guages, or to Webster's unabridged dictionary. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

The adjective is a word joined to a noun, and 
generally expresses some quality of the noun, or 
limits its logical extension. 

In order to constitute a word an adjective, it must 
have the syntax of an adjective ; that is, it must be 
joined to a noun. Many adjectives express no qualify 
whatever, and a few do not limit or restrict the logical 
extension of the word to which it is joined, but all' ad- 
jectives hold a certain and invariable relation with some 
noun or pronoun, expressed or understood. An adjec- 
tive is part and parcel of the noun to which it is at- 
tached, as the black stove expresses but one object ; and let 
there be ever so many adjectives, they do not augment 
the number of objects ; as, the large, black, iron stove may 
be considered the logical subject or subject-nominative 
of a sentence, the conclusion of which may be expressed 
by the words stands on the floor, as a predicate. 

A noun without an adjective is invariably taken in its 
broadest extension ; as, Man is accountable. America is 
a fine country. A knife is a useful article. The rose is 
beautiful. In these expressions, the words man, America, 
knife and rose, are taken in their broadest extension, 
meaning, respectively, all mankind, the whole continent, 
all kinds of knives, and all kinds of roses. Now, if we 
wish to express a part, we use the adjective, and say — 
white man (excluding the blacks), North America (and 
exclude the South), etc., from which it will be readily 

What is an adjective ? What must a word have to constitute it an 
adjective? Do all adjectives express quality? Do they all restrict 
extension ? When is a noun taken in its broadest extension ? 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

perceived by the student, without dwelling longer on 
this point, that the legitimate use of an adjective is, to 
enable us to distinguish one object from another, to de- 
fine it ; and that any word which ha§ a syntactic rela- 
tion to and restricts the extension of a noun, by excluding 
a part, is an adjective in its nature, whether it expresses 
quality or not; as, this room (alluding to the room in 
which you are while reading this) ; this is nothing but 
an adjective, as it restricts the extension of the noun 
room, by excluding all other rooms. A he goat (exclud- 
ing the female). 

•Some phrases, also, have the same relation to a noun 
that the adjective has, by virtue of the fact that they re- 
strict the extension of the noun. (See Kelation of Sec- 
tions and Phrases.) 






The adjectives the and a or an. 

The and A or an are words of an adjective re- 
lation, when used in a sentence. 

An is used before words commencing with a 
vowel or silent h ; as, an egg ; an hour. 

A is used before words commencing with a con- 
sonant or aspirated h ; as, a mem ; a hoy ; a him- 
dred ; etc. A is also used before words commenc- 
ing with u, y, and w; as, a union; a yoke; a wag ; 
not an union, etc. 

By some authors these words are denominated articles. 
Webster says, such a thing as an article can not exist in 
language. He says : 

" There is no word, or class of words, that falls within 
the signification of article (a joint), or that can otherwise 
than arbitrarily be brought under that denomination. 
The words called articles are all adjectives or pronouns.* 

Do phrases also limit extension ? What are the peculiarities of the 
adjectives a and the ? Do some grammarians call these words articles ? 

* In Latin or Greek. 






ADJECTIVE. . 87 

When they are used with nouns, they are adjectives, 
modifying the signification of nouns, like other adjec- 
tives, for this is their proper office. When they stand 
alone, they are pronouns ; as, hie, Me, ipse, in Latin, 
when used with nouns expressed, are adjectives : hie 
homo, this man; Me homo, the or that man. When they 
stand alone, hie, Me (meaning he, etc.), they stand in the 
place of nouns." 

In English, says Webster, " the is an adjective; and 
why it should have been selected as the only definitive 
is very strange, when, obviously, this and that are more 
exactly definitive." Again: — 

" As to the English an or a, which is called, in gram- 
mars, the indefinite article, there are two great mistakes. 
A being considered as the original word, it is said to be- 
come an before a vowel. The fact is directly the reverse. 
An is the original word ; and this is contracted to a, by 
dropping the n before a consonant. 

" But an is merely the Saxon orthography for one, un, 
unus, etc., an adjective found in nearly all the languages 
of Europe, and expressing a single person or thing. It 
is merely a word of number, and no more an ^article 
than two, three, four, and every other numeral in the 
language." 

In Greek, 6, r n to ; and in French, le, la, as also the 
article (if such it may be termed), in some other lan- 
guages, might with propriety be called definite, inas- 
much as it serves to designate the gender of the noun to 
which it is attached : 6 belongs to masculine nouns, jj to 
feminine, and to to neuter. So le is always joined to 
masculine nouns only, and la to those that are feminine. 
We may say the same of the German der, die, das ; and 
the Spanish el, la, lo ; which belong respectively to nouns 
masculine, feminine and neuter. 

Neither does the serve, in any manner, to define, desig- 
nate, or point out the noun to which it is attached ; on 

Are there any reasons why these words should be considered as ad- 
jectives? Give some of those reasons. What is said of an or a? 
What is said of the article in other languages? Does the serve to de- 
fine any word ? 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

the contrary, the is the least definitive of all adjectives, 
unless it be such words as any, all, few, many, and the 
like. Let us instance this sentence — " Bring me the 
book." Now, if there be several books in the room, no 
one would be enabled, by the word the, to designate what 
book is meant; and if there be but one book in the 
room, certainly the book is of itself a very definite word r 
and can not be made more so by prefixing the word the. 
Again : " Bring me the large book." Is it not obvious 
that the word large is not only the more definitive word, 
but the only one in the sentence? 

The is evidently a contraction of this, that, these, or 
those, being similar to these words in meaning; and, 
generally, can be readily substituted in the place of one 
of them, the only difficulty being that the is not suffi- 
ciently definitive to express the ordinary meaning of this 7 
that, etc. 

Says Webster, quoting — " l The article a is used in a 
vague- sense, to point out one single thing of a kind; in 
other respects, indeterminate.' — Lowth. 

" Example — ' I will be an adversary to thine adversa- 
ries;' that is, in a vague sense, any adversary; indeter- 
minate ! 

" < And he spake a parable unto them ; r that is, any 
parable : indeterminate ! 

" * Thou art a God, ready to pardon ;/ that is, any 
God ! any one of the kind, in a vague sense, and inde- 
terminate ! " Again : — 

" ' The article a, 1 says Harris, i leaves the individual 
unascertained.' Let us examine this position : 

u But Peter took him, saying, stand up ; I, myself, 
also am a man.''— iVoaft Webster. 

(That is, according to Harris, Peter was not assured 
of his own identity !') 

Says A to me, " I have a worthy father." Quere : does 
it leave the individual unascertained ? Washington was 

Of what word may the be considered a contraction? Is a used in 
a vague sense indefinitely ? 



ADJECTIVE!. 89 

a great man ; London is a large city; drunkenness is a 
vice; charity is a virtue; Edward is a scholar; Webster 
was a statesman. Now, in these instances, the adjective 
a does not " leave the noun to which it belongs unascer- 
tained or indeterminate) 1 ' neither is it the word that does 
ascertain or determine the " individual" this office being 
performed by some other word in the sentence. Says 
Webster again : 

" On testing the real character of an or a, by usage or 
facts, we find it is merely the adjective one, in its Saxon 
•orthography, and that its sole use is to denote one, 
whether the individual is known or unknown, definite 
or indefinite." 

A Mr. Hamblin, who, some years ago, published an 
abridgement of Murray 's grammar, introduced this 
highly original sentence : — " The bee is an industrious 
insect." Now, as none of his readers could tell what 
particular bee was meant by the, it being plain that bee 
was taken in its broadest extension, including in its mean- 
ing every bee on earth, he accompanied the sentence 
witk this learned commentary : — " The is a definite arti- 
cle, because it points out the signification of the noun 
lee!" 

The preceding remarks, it is hoped, will be sufficient 
to induce any one to call the and a merely adjectives. 
If, however, any teacher, making use of this work, 
should still persist in adopting the superstitious errors . 
of past ages, let him not mystify the minds of his schol- 
ars by teaching them that the is any more definite ijian 
this or that ; or that a or an is any less so than one, two, 
or three. 



What does Webster say about a ? What renders nouns definite ? 
(Attributes.) 

8 






90 ENGLISIJ GRAMMAR. 



OTHER ADJECTIVES. 

This, that, these, those, are simply adjectives, this 
and that being added to nouns in the singular, 
these and those to nouns in the plural This and 
these indicate things near or present; that and 
those indicate things absent, distant, past or re- 
moved. 

Says Smith in his grammar — " In the sentence ' Both 
wealth and poverty are temptations : that tends to excite 
pride; this, discontent:' yon perceive that the word 
that represents wealth ; and the word this, poverty. 
This and that do, therefore, resemble pronouns, and may 
for this reason be called pronouns." 

May we not say the same, then, of any other adjec- 
tive? Let us substitute some other adjective in ttfe 
above sentence, and say, " Wealth and poverty are 
temptations : the former tends to excite pride ; the latter, 
discontent; former what? temptation; latter what? temp- 
tation. Again: "The first tends to excite pride,* the 
second (or the other), discontent. Adjectives again. 
Another instance : " This paper is white ; that is black" 
Now the words white and black are as much pronouns as 
this or that. Or again: "Good and bad persons dwell 
on earth ; the good shall be rewarded, the bad punished." 
-Are good and bad pronouns? Any adjective may be 
used in a sentence without a noun, but in all such cases 
the noun is evidently understood. Such elliptical omis- 
sion of the noun does not render the adjective a pronoun 
by any means. 



What other adjectives are there? What are they, and what are 
their peculiarities ? What does Smith say of them? May not almost 
any adjective be used independent of its noun ? Is it, then, a pro- 
noun? 



I 



ADJECTIVE. 91 

Each, every, either,* neither,* some, any, all, 
such, one, few, many, other, former, latter, an- 
other, any other, each other, which f and whatf 
may also be considered as adjectives. 

Sentence :- — They looked at one another. 

Antecedent. p. p. nom. verb. 

Construction (^Persons) they looked 

Adj. understood-, understood. 

one (person) (looked) 

Prep. adj. obj. understood. 

at another (person) 

The above construction 5s in strict accordance with 
the rules of all grammars, and merely supplies the 
ellipses to make the sense complete. If, however, the 
.teacher should consider other and its compounds pro- 
nouns, let him cease to call them adjectives ; for such a 
thing as an adjective pronoun can not exist in language. 



SECONDARY OR AUXILIARY ADJECTIVES. 

A secondary adjective is a % word that has a re- 
lation, to some other adjective; as, a very cold 
day ; an exceedingly long journey. 

These words are, by many authors, considered as ad- 
verbs; but an adverb, as its name indicates, must belong 
to some verb : hence any word that is not joined to a 
verb can not be an ad-verb. Auxiliary adjectives, when 
formed from primitive adjectives add ly, generally, after 
the manner of adverbial terminations ; as. a supremely 
wise ruler; an extremely high tower, etc. 

What other adjectives are there ? Repeat them. Give example of 
their construction. What is an auxiliary adjective? How are these 
words considered by some authors ? 



f When not used as corresponding conjunctions, 
t When not relating to an antecedent or consequent; as what book 
is this? 



92 ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

By means of the auxiliary adjective, words hitherto 
considered anomalous are easily parsed ; as in the sen- 
tence, "the wall is three-feet thick." By comparison we 

see : 

The wall is extremely thick } extremely, aux. adjective. 
The wall is quite thick ; quite, aux. adjective. 
) The wall is three-feet thick ; three-feet, aux. adjective. 
The wall is very thick ; YQry, aux. adjective. 

The term anomaly means that one word has a differ- 
ent construction from another } the term analogy sig- 
nifies that words having the same syntax, relation, or 
construction, must, from the necessity of that very con- 
struction, be the same part of speech. K"ow, is the word 
"feet," in the above sentence, analogous to, or anomalous 
from the other words in italics? We first ask the 
learned grammarian to give us the syntax. He will 
agree that it holds a relation, as arranged in the abo\^e 
sentence, with thick ; three feet thick. Let me ask the 
student, who may be reading these remarks, if he ever 
knew a noun constructed with an adjective; and do 
words become nouns in consequence of that construc- 
tion? If the auxiliary adjective, (or adverb, as styled 
by old authors,) is a noun without a governing word, it 
would form one of the greatest anomalies that ever ex- 
isted in language. 

The adjectives a and the are often used as auxiliary 
adjectives : and in this way a or an is sometimes joined 
to an adjective that belongs to a noun in the plural; a 
thousand stars, a dozen eggs. In such cases one may 
be often used in the place of a; but there are cases in 
which it can not ; as, a few men attended ; a large eon- 
course assembled. A, placed before little changes the 
signification; as, "he had little faith" and "he had a 

Are a and the sometimes used as auxiliaries ? 



ADJECTIVE. 93 

little faith. " Observe the effect of a. The same thing 
occurs in the use of a before few. 

Care must be taken not to confound the auxiliary ad- 
jective with the simple adjective, in cases where two or 
more adjectives follow in succession; as, " a pious, gen- 
erous man," in which case both adjectives belong to man, 
differing from "a very pious man," where "very" belongs 
to "pious." Recollect the primitive adjective has a 
relation to a noun only ; the secondary, to an adjective 
only. | , 



EXTENSION OF NOUNS. 

[By extension we mean the number of individuals to 
which the noun can be applied; thus: "Man is account- 
able to his Maker." Here, man is a noun, in the singu- 
lar number, denoting but one; and yet, by its logical 
extension, it includes every individual of the human 
race; for if there were one human being that was not 
accountable, the proposition, that "Man is accountable 
to his Maker, ".would not be true.] 

No word in a period or sentence can have any 
greater extension than the other words or sec- 
tions in the same sentence will give it. 

It now remains to be shown how a noun may be 
limited in its extension, or prohibited from extending to 
the whole race, genus or species of which each indi- 
vidual is a part; and this is affected in three ways : 

1. By appropriating to an individual a proper name. 

2. By prefixing an adjective. 

3. By subjoining to a noun a section of an adjective re- 
lation. 



What is the difference between the adjective and auxiliary adjec- 
tive? How great an extension can any word have? How may a 
noun be limited ? 



94 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



George, David, William and Henry are proper names 
used to point out certain individuals included in the ex- 
tensive, common name, man. 

Boston, London, Troy, Eome, Massachusetts, Ohio, 
Somerville, Hudson, St. Lawrence, Mohawk, Mississippi, 
each restricts the extension of the more extensive noun, 
city, state, village, and river. 

It has been previously shown in what manner nouns 
are restricted by adjectives; but for the better elucida- 
tion of # thg present subject the following are subjoined : 
Table, carving, butcher, pen, pocket, and butter knife, 
are six fractions, of -which "knife" is the whole; as, 



t> o 



Table ^ 
carving 




r 


rth of 

ccies. 


butcher 




o 2 


O W 




I KNIFE. \ 




^2 < 


pen 






c2 


pocket 






*5 


butter 




Q 





European 
Asiatic 
American 
African 



> MAN.-< 



I 



From this view of the subject, we deduce the follow- 
ing rules: 

1. Every greater includes the less.- 

2. All the parts united form a whole. 

Again : Nouns are restricted in their extension by 
subjoining a section of an adjective relation ;* as, 

1. Father; (all or any father — broadest extension.) 

2. Our father; (extension limited by our — that is, 
father of us.) 

3. Father who art in heaven; (that is, heavenly father. 
Now, as heavenly is simply an adjective, its equivalent 
phrase "who art in heaven" is called an adjective phrase, 
and restricts the noun to which it is subjoined in the 
same manner as any other adjective.) 

What rules are deduced ? In what other way are nouns restricted? 



* See Relation of phrases, page 188. 



ADJECTIVE. 95 

4. Heaven hides the book of fate ; of fate, being equiv- 
alent to the adjective fatal, is called an adjective phrase, 
and as such restricts the extension of the noun, book, to 
one class only. 

For a further consideration of this subject, see Eela- 
tive Pronouns and Prepositions. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison ; 
the positive, comparative and superlative. 

The positive degree expresses absolute quality 
or simple limitation ; as, an old man. 

The comparative expresses the quality or limi- 
tation in a higher or lower degree; as an older 
man ; a better boy ; a less evil. 

The superlative expresses the quality or limita- 
tion in the highest or lowest degree ; as, the oldest 
man ; the best boy ; the least evil. 

The comparative degree is used to compare two nouns 
only; the superlative compares never less than three, 
and often more. 

The comparative is formed by adding er to the 
positive, or by using the auxiliary adjective more 
in connection with the positive ; as positive dear, 
comparative dearer; positive extensive, compara- 
tive more extensive. 

The superlative is formed by adding est to the 
positive, or prefixing most ; as dear, de&vest; ex- 
cellent, most excellent. 

Many adjectives are compared irregularly ; as : — 
Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Good, better, best. 

Little, less, . least. 

Bad, worse, worst. 

Much or many, more, most. 

How many degrees of comparison are there? What are they? 
What do they express? How are they formed? Are some adjectives 
Compared irregularly? 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

As a general thing adjectives of quality only are 
comparable. Words, naturally ' nouns, but by relation 
adjectives, are incomparable. Adjectives, which in them- 
selves express the comparative or superlative degree, 
admit of no comparison; as, extreme, excessive, right, 
wrong, infinite, supreme, eternal, perfect, omnipotent, utter- 
most, etc., etc. 

The use of double comparatives is incorrect; as "he 
is the niost wisest man ; " " it is more worse now." Most 
and more should be omitted. 






FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE ADJECTIVE. 

Adjectives sometimes belong to pronouns. 

Instance : — John is studious. I am studious. John is 
industrious. They are industrious. 

Eelation of John, in the first sentence ; "John is ;" i. e., 
John is nominative to the verb is. Eelation of is ; " John 
is." That is, is agrees with John. Eelation of studious ; 
" studious John." Studious, an adjective, and belongs to 
John. By this we see that no word in that sentence has a 
syntactic relation to any word in any other sentence \ and 
this is true of all sentences. Hence — 

Rule. — Everv word in a sentence must have a 
syntactic relation to some other word in the same 
sentence. 

If this be true, the word "studious," in the second sen- 
tence, can not belong to " John " in the first. Hence w j 
conclude it must have a relation to the pronoun I. 

An adjective can not be joined to a verb. 

Says Mr. Lennie — " The poets sometimes improperly 
use an adjective for an adverb." 

What- adjectives do not admit of comparison? Do adjectives some- 
times belong to pronouns? What rule is given on this page? Can 
an adjective be joined to a verb? What does Lennie say about this? 



I 



ADJECTIVE. 97 

He then adds, as an example : — 

u The lovely young Lavinia once had friends, 
And fortune smiled deceitful on her birth." 

Deceitful what? Evidently, deceitful fortune; and de- 
ceitful is an adjective, belonging to fortune. We think 
Mr, Lennie hath unjustly traduced the poets. Again he 
quotes : — 

" I, cheerful, will obey " 

Why may not cheerful be an adjective belonging to the 
pronoun If These words obviously belong to the noun 
or pronoun, and not to the verb. An adjective can not be 
construed with a verb ; hence the above words are adjec- 
tives. 

Again Mr. Lennie gives the following sentence for 
correction : — 

"Eliza always appears amiably ;" implying that the 
word amiably should be aimable, inasmuch as it is an 
adjective, and has a relation to the noun Eliza. Does 
not the word amiably or amiable in the above sentence 
occupy a position precisely similar to that of the words 
deceitful and cheerful above quoted? Most assuredly 
it does. If the first words are adverbs, why not the 
last? When learned grammarians thus contradict them- 
selves, we think their principles must be at fault. De- 
ceitful, cheerful, and amiable, in the above sentences, are 
adjectives, beyond dispute j as also the italicised words 
in the following sentences : — 

He throws the ball high (i. e., high ball). 

The house was painted white (white house). 

He gives much to the poor* 

The good are truly happy.']' 

The speaker waxed indignant. 

* Much belongs to things or alms, understood ; and poor belongs to 
persons, understood. 

t Good and happy belong to persons, understood. Truly is an aux- 
iliary adjective, belonging to happy. 

9 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES. . 
Adjectives are often formed from nouns by adding ly ; 
as, man, manly ; prince, princely ; and sometimes by add- 
ing ful; as, truth, truthful; mirth, mirthful; Adjectives 
are sometimes compounded with other words and termi- 
nations ; as, senseless, piteous, righteous, fulsome, loath- 
some, handsome, etc., etc. 

— : 

OF THE PRONOUN. 
A pronoun* is a word used instead of the noun : 
as, the man is industrious, therefore he is con- 
tented. 

Note. — If, in the above definition, you read the three 
words in italics thus — {man), he is — you give to the pro- 
noun he its true relation; for all pronouns have a double 
relation ; and all refer to their antecedents ibr gender, 
person and number, and to another word for case : hence, 
he is a personal pronoun, standing for, and agreeing 
with man (in gender, number, and person), and in the 
nominative case, because it precedes the verb is. There- 
fore, no word of a single relation can possibly be a pro- 
noun — as, every 1 man — this adjective can not be a pro- 
noun, because it stands for no noun whatever; hence, 
there can be no such thing as an adjective pronoun, or a 
pronominal adjective. 

There are two sorts of pronouns, personal and 
relative. Personal pronouns are used to repre- 
sent the three persons of nouns (first, second, third) 
I represents the first person; as, I" am (I, the 
speaker) . Thou represents the second person ; as, 
thou art {thou, the person u spoken to"). H6 P she 



■ 



• 



* Pronoun is derived from the two latin words pro (for), and nome\ 
(a name), signifying that it stands for a name or noun. 

How are adjectives sometimes formed? Are they sometimes com- 
pounded with other words? How? What is a pronoun? What is 
the relation of a pronoun? How many sorts of pronouns are there? 
What are they? Do the personal pronouns always represent certain 
persons of the noun ? From what is the word pronoun derived ? 



PRONOUN. 99 

and it represent the third person; as ; he is (He, 
third person spoken of). The relative pronouns 
may represent any one of these persons. 

The use of the pronoun is to obviate the too frequent 
repetition of the noun. As a part of speech, it is not 
an absolute necessity in any language, but is one of those 
ingenious contrivances, with which all languages abound, 
to make our words and sentences fall smooth and harmo- 
niously upon the ear. 

Personal pronouns, like nouns, have number 
and case as well as person. In the third person 
they also have gender ; as, he, she, it, being re- 
spectively masculine, feminine and neuter. 

They vary, either in form or termination, for the dif- 
ferent ca'ses ; hence they are declinable. 





DECLENSION OF 


THE 


PRONOUN. 








FOEM. 








SINGULAR. 




PLURAL. 






1. 2. 




3. 


1. 2. 


3. 


Case. 














MAS. 


FEM. 


NETJT. 




Nominative, 


I, thou, 


he, 


she, 


it. We, ye or you, 


they. 


T^fWSST^SJSiTVTT! 


| my, thy, 
( mine, thine, 


his, 


her, 


its; our, your, 


their. 


A. UOoLool \ Jlu 


"own 


, hers, 


its ; ours, yours, 


theirs. 


Objective, 


me, thee, 


him, 


her, 


it; us, you, 


them. 


Accusative, 


me, thee, 


him, 


her, 


it; us, you, 


them. 


Independent, 


— thou, 


— 


— 


— — ye, 





Absolute, 


I, thou, 


he, 


she, 


it ; we, ye or you, 


they. 



Pronouns have the same relations as nouns. 

And it is by this relation that the case is determined : 
no reliance can, therefore, be placed on a table of "de- 
clension," in determining this attribute. ~No noun or 
pronoun can have a case until it has a relation. The 
above table gives the forms of the cases for convenience 

What may relative pronouns represent? What is the use of the 
pronoun? Do personal pronouns have number and case? Do they 
have gender? Do they vary to form the different cases? Repeat 
the declension of the personal pronouns? Do pronouns have the 
same relations as nouns? What is determined by this relation? 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of reference ; "but a pronoun can not properly be said to 
have a case or position until it is incorporated in a 
sentence. 

A pronoun must be referred to its antecedent 
or consequent : 

For unless a word has an antecedent or consequent, 
for which it stands, it can not be a pronoun. 



COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Compound personal pronouns are formed by 
adding self to the simple pronouns ; as, myself 
himself etc. 

All the cases of the personal pronouns, however, can 
not be so compounded ; as we can not say Iself, thouself, 
heself. It is-, in fact, to the possessive and objective or ac- 
cusative cases, only, that self can "be added. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Kelatiye pronouns, like personals, relate to 
antecedents, with which they agree in gender, 
number and person. 

There are five relative pronouns, who, which, 
what, that, .and as. Who is declined thus : 

Nom. poss. obj. ace. ind. aba. 

who, whose, whom, whom, who, who. 

The plural is like the singular. All the other relatives 
are indeclinable. 









COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

"What and as are sometimes used in a twofold sense; 
and are then called compound relative pronouns, equal to 
"the thing or things which;" as, "Heaven hides from 

To what must a pronoun be referred ? Why ? How are compound 
personal pronouns formed? Can all the eases of personal pronouns 
be compounded? Do relative pronouns relate to antecedents? Do 
they agree with them in gender, number and person? How many 
relative pronouns are there ? What are they ? How is who declined ? 
Are the other relatives declinable ? What are the compound relative 
pronouns? to what are they equal? 



PRONOUN. 101 

brutes what men; from men what spirits know;" i. e., 
hides from brutes the things which men know, and from 
men the things which spirits know. Again : — 

| He speaks as he thinks. 

\ He speaks the thoughts which he thinks. 

f From what is recorded. 

( From the fact which is recorded. 
By changing what or as into the thing which, or other 
words of like import, as above, to correspond with the 
evident sense of the sentence, we shall easily be able to 
construe and parse the words. 

Observations. 

If the words other, another, some, any, one, and the like, 
be called pronouns, it must be clearly established that 
they stand/or some noun. In this case they cease to be 
adjectives, for the nature of an adjective and a pronoun is 
as opposite as that of a verb and a preposition. Better 
far to call them adjectives and supply the noun to which 
they belong. 

If a pronoun can be construed with a noun, then it 
would be grammatically correct to use such expressions 
as, u give, me them books ;" " lend me them pens,''' etc., in- 
stead of using the adjective these, as these books, those 
pens, etc. 

Of the relative pronouns it" is proper to observe that 
who is always used in. speaking of persons ; and what and 
as in speaking of things. Which and that are generally 
used in speaking of things, but occasionally also applied 
to persons. 

That, when used as a relative pronoun, does not admit 
the preposition with before it. We can not say: "this 
is the same man with that you are acquainted;" but 
must use ichom in the place of that. Smith, however, 
says we may say: "He is the same man that you are 
acquainted with ;" a very improper, inelegant and erro- 
neous sentence for several reasons: 1st. It is precisely 
like the first, when construed. 2d. It unnecessarily 

Give examples of compound relative pronouns. Can the same word 
be an adjective and pronoun at the same time? What may be ob- 
served of the relative pronouns ? What is said of that f 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

closes the sentence with a preposition ; and 3d. It vio- 
lates the rule at the commencement of this paragraph,, 
by making that the object of ivith. 

When who, which and what are used as interrogatives, 
the word or words for which they stand follow in the 
answer and for that reason are called subsequents instead 
of antecedents ; the former signifying " following after;''' 
and the latter " going before" Which has no possessive 
form of its own : we use therefore whose or of which; as, 
" the tree whose bark is rough; " or the tree, the bark of 
which is rough. 

Who, which and what are often compounded with ever 
and soever; as, whoever, whosoever, whatever, whatsoever, 
whichever and whichsoever. The two latter are considered 
inelegant and seldom used. These compounds are used 
when we wish to give the pronoun its broadest exten- 
sion, or to apply it to some person or thing unknown. 
We might, with great propriety consider *these four 
latter words as mere adjectives, belonging to person or 
thing understood. By supplying ellipses, which'smd what 
may, in all cases, be construed as adjectives. The word 
own may be construed as a noun, pronoun or adjective; 
generally the latter, signifying peculiar possession. 

Himself, herself, themselves, etc., are often used in the 
nominative, though inelegantly so. They are used cor- 
rectly in the objective, accusative, and sometimes the 
absolute; as, he reads to himself; she killed herself ; them- 
selves being famished, etc. 

For a further consideration of the words that and as 7 
see conjunctions. 



VERBS. 



A verb is a word used to express the existence 
or action, performed or received by its nominative. 

The verb, from the Latin verbum, a word, is the word 
paramount to all others in a sentence, as the life giving 
principle. The noun or subject of a sentence may be 

What is said of who, which and what? Are they often compounded 
with ever and soever f What is said of herself, himself and themselves ? 
What is a verb ? From what is it derived ? 



VERBS. 103 

compared to a body, of which the verb is the soul or 
spirit. These two words alone (i. e., the nom. and verb, 
as subject and predicate,) form the sentence, all other 
words, as adjectives, adverbs, etc., being non-essential 
further than to serve as a garb with which to beautify 
the living form of a sentence. ^ 

All verbs imply the existence of their nominative; for 
if we behold a work performed we must infer the ex- 
istence of some agent capable of performing it. All 
verbs, however, do not express action or motion. A 
simple definition of the verb is : " it is that word in a 
sentence which asserts, that something or some person 
exists, acts, or is acted upon.' 1 

There are three kinds of verbs, transitive , in- 
transitive, and passive. 

Transitive verbs have a nominative before 
them and an object after them; as, James eats 
fruit. 

Intransitive verbs have a nominative, but no 
object; as, Henry walks. 

A passive verb is the reversed form of the 
transitive verb, and generally expresses action 
received by its nominative ; as, fruit is eaten by 
James. 

The old-time division of the verb into six classes, 
active transitive, active intransitive, neuter trans., neuter 
intrans., active passive and neuter passive is now disre- 
garded. By the present method, the idea of motion does 
not enter into the formation or classification of verbs. 

The word transitive (from the Latin transeo, or more 
directly from the supine of that verb, transitum, signify - 

What do all verbs imply ? What is a simple definition of a verb ? 
How many kinds of* verbs are there ? What are they ? Describe 
them ? From what is the word transitive derived ? What does it 
signify ? 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ing to go over,) plainly indicates that the action passes 
over or goes over from the nominative to the object ; as, 

John strikes the table, 
in which sentence the action is said to pass from John to 
table. The same thing is equally true of sentences where 
there is neither action nor motion ; as, 

The table supports the book, 
from which we see that motion has nothing to do with 
the formation of verbs, the only reliable guide being the 
relation which the words sustain to each other. As, for 
instance, in the above sentence, " table supports book,' 1 
the relation of supports is duplicate ; that is, it has a rela- 
tion to table on the one side, and to book on the other. 
Hence : 

All transitive verbs must have a double re- 
lation. 

The contrary is true of intransitive (or not-go-over) 
verbs: that is, there can be no u passing over" to an ob- 
ject, from the fact that intransitive verbs require no 
object; as in the sentence, 

The moon smiles, 

there is but one relation, and that is from the verb 
smiles to its nominative moon, there being no object; as 
it would be improper to say the u moon smiles any thing" 
Hence : 

All intransitive verbs can have but a single re- 
lation. 

From the above two rules we deduce this axiom : all 
verbs of a double relation, in all languages, are transitive 
verbs; and, a priori, all verbs of a single relation are in- 
trans-iT-ive (or not-go-over) verbs. 

Does motion have any thing to do with the formation of verbs ? 
What must transitive verbs have ? What do all intransitive verbs 
have? 



VERB. 105 

Intransitive, (single rel.) Transitive, (double rel.) 

Man walks. John studies grammar. 

Tempest blows. God made the world. 

Trees grow. Trees bear fruit. 

John runs. John drives a horse. 

This list might be increased by inserting every verb 
in the language; in which case all the transitive verbs 
would arrange themselves under the second column of 
the plus relation. From which it is plain that the only 
division of verbs founded on the language is to be traced 
to their single and double relation. 

1. Single relation, or intransitive. 

2. Double relation, or transitive. * 

Passive* verbs, being but the transposed or reversed 
form of the transitive, may, very properly, be included in 
that class. The passive form is used often when the 
agent of the verb is unknown ; as, a man was killed ; the 
house was set on fire. The passive form can always be 
changed to the transitive by supplying the real nomina- 
tive, if known ; or the word somebody, or something, if 
unknown ; as, somebody killed a man ; somebody set fire to 
the house, etc. And, vice versa, the transitive verb can 
be changed to the passive; as, John strikes the table; 
i. e., table is struck by John. But the intransitive never 
can be made passive; as, John walks; we can not say, 
" somebody or something is walked by John. 71 



OF MOODS. 

Mood is the different form of the verb, to rep- 
resent the manner of existing or acting. 

Can all transitive verbs be changed into the passive form, and all 
passive into the transitive form ? Can intransitive verbs be changed 
into the passive form ? From what is the word passive derived ? 

* Passive, from the supine of the Latin verb patior, to suffer, or to 
receive, signifies receiving, or suffering, the action of the nominative. 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

There are five moods — indicative, potential, 

SUBJUNCTIVE, IMPERATIVE and INFINITIVE. 

The indicative mood indicates that its nomina- 
tive case exists or acts, either affirmatively or in- 
terrogatively ; in a positive or negative sense. 

. j" Pos. — Jolm ate an orange. 

Affirmative, j Neg.— John did not eat an orange. 

T f Pos. — Will John eat an orange? 

Interrogative, j ^ egm _ mil not John eat an Grange? 

The potential mood denotes the possibility, 
liberty, power, will or obligation of its nominative 
to e^ist : as, I can strike the table, but I will not ; 
you may return, if you please. 

Can strike, denotes that the 'act is possible ; but 1 will 
not (strike it), implies that no one can act against his will. 
I can strike you, but I will not that action ; therefore, you 
will escape with impunity. I could go to New York if I 
would. Could, denotes that the act of going is possible 
in itself, while the section, if I would, implies that no 
possible existence or action can take place against the 
will of him on whom its performance depends, whether 
of God or his creatures. 

"What we would do, we should do when we would, 
for this would changes." — Shakspeare. 

In all languages, except the English, this mood is de- 
nominated the subjunctive. The only object of this 
change in the English seems to have been to get a better 
and more appropriate name. The fact that, in other 
languages, this mood is subjoined or connected back to a 
previous sentence by the conjunction that, or some simi- 
lar word, renders it very properly the subjunctive mood. 
This is not the case in English. 

How many moods are there? What are they? What does the in- 
dicative mood indicate? The potential mood? What is this mood 
called in other languages ? Why ? 



VERBS. 107 

The subjunctive* mood is used when we would 
express a doubt or uncertainty regarding an action. 

The indicative fo*rm is often used in the sense of the 
subjunctive ; and some authors give this form in their 
tables of conjunction as a second form of the subjunctive. 

Noah Webster, in the introduction to his dictionary, 
devotes a large space tb the consideration of this mood, 
showing the indicative form to be correct. He says : — 

" The propriety of using the indicative form of the 
verb to express a present or past act conditionally does 
not rest solely on usage; it is most correct on principle. 
It is well known that most of the words which are used 
to introduce a condition or hypothesis, and called, most 
improperly, conjunctions, are verbs, having not the least 
affinity to the class of words used to connect sentences. 
If is the Saxon gif to give, having lost its first letter; if 
for the ancient gif Though is a verb now obsolete, ex- 
cept in tfre imperative mood. 'Now let us analyze this 
conditional tense of the verb. < If the man knows his 
true. inter est, he w r ill avoid a quarrel.' Here is an omis- 
sion of the word that, after if. The true original phrase 
was, ' If that the man knows,' etc. ; that is, ' give that 
(admit the fact that) the man knows, etc.,' then the con- 
sequence follows, he will avoid a quarrel." 

Again : "Admit that the man knows his interest. We 
have then, decisive proof that the use of the indicative 
form of the verb after if, when it expresses a conditional 
event, in present time, is most correct ; indeed, it is the 
only correct form. This remark is equally applicable 
to the past tense." 

Smith, in his grammar, says : " When any verb, in 
the Subjunctive Mood, present tense, has a reference to 



When is the Subjunctive Mood used ? Is the Indicative form some- 
times used in the Subjunctive? What does Webster say about this 
Mood ? From what is the word Subjunctive derived ? 



* Subjunctive from the Latin subjungo, to join together, indicates 
that the sentence in which the subjunctive occurs is connected back 
to the former sentence by a conjunction. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

future time, we should use the subjunctive form ;" as, 
if thou love, if he love, etc. But, "when a verb in the 
Subjunctive Mood, present tense, has no reference to 
future time, we sho-uld use the common (i. e. Indicative) 
form ; " as, if thou lovest, if he loves, etc. 

This distinction, at first sight, seems a good one ; but 
we find that some of the best writers use the Indicative 
form when future time is clearly indicated ) as : 

" If America is not to be conquered." — Lord Chatham. 

"If we are to be satisfied with assertions." — Fox. 

"The politician looks for a power that our workmen 
call a purchase, and it he finds the power." — Burke. 

"If he finds his collection too small." — Johnson. 

"The prince that acquires new territory, if he finds it 
vacant." — Dr. Franklin. 

"If any persons thus qualified are to be found. 1 ' — George 
Washington. 

"If discord and disunion shall wound it, (Liberty) — if 
party strife and blind ambition shall hawk at and tear it — 
if folly and madness, if uneasiness under salutary and 
necessary restraint shall succeed to separate it from that 
union by which alone its existence is made sure, it will 
fall, if fall it must, amid the proudest monuments of its 
own glory and on the very spot of its origin." — Daniel 
Webster. 

"But nothing he '11 reck if they let him sleep on." — Bu- 
rial of John Moore. 

"If I am gone from you when you read this." — Willis. 

We might continue these quotations, ad infinitum, but 
the above will doubtless suffice to convince any rational 
person that the Subjunctive Mood, in the Indicative 
form, is used as often to represent future action as the 
past or present. 

We must, therefore conclude, either that all verbs fol- 
lowing the conjunctions, if, though, unless, except, whether, 

What does Smith say ? Is the indicative form used to indicate future 
time ? Give examples. How is the Subjunctive Mood known ? 






VEKBS. 109 

etc., are in the Subjunctive Mood, or that there is no 
Subjunctive whatever. Since there are a few forms of 
the verb, representing a contingent action, and usually 
subjoined to a previous sentence by one of the conjunc- 
tions, which can not be used in an Indicative sense, we can 
not say there is no Subjunctive Mood. Hence we will 
say : 

Any verb following any of the conjunctions, 
if, though, unless, except, whether, since, although, 
lest, notwithstanding, provided, is in the Sub- 
junctive. 

Sometimes there is an intervening clause between the 
Subjunctive and the conjunction ; as; " if, when I return, 
I find you convalescent, I shall be pleased." The phrase 
"when I return 7 ' is parenthetical, as indicated by the 
commas placed before and after it, and is not, in reality, 
the immediate subsequent of the conjunction if When 
properly construed the sentence reads : " I shall be 
pleased if I find you convalescent, when I return." This 
arrangement brings the conjunction if between the sen- 
tences it connects, and before the Subjunctive find, which 
it renders contingent ; and, also, places the parenthetical 
clause "when I return" at the close of the sentence where 
it seems more properly to belong. 

Lennie says, the Subjunctive is " preceded by a con- 
junction and followed by another verb; as, ' If thy 
presence go not with us, carry us not up hence.' " 

This, so 3 far from being the Eule, is the exception ; for 
it is obvious that if "if" is a conjunction, it must connect 
some word or sentence. We have already shown that 
this is bad arrangement, in the previous sentence, " If I 
find ^ou convalescent," etc. Hence, when the sentences 

When a parenthetical clause intervenes after the subjunctive con- 
junction, which verb is subjunctive? What does Lennie say? Is 
this always true ? 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

are properly construed, and the conjunction placed be- 
tween those sentences it connects, the Subjunctive will 
immediately follow one of the conjunctions, if, though, 
etc. ; and no sentence, unless parenthetical, explicative 
or irrelevant can follow. For a test of this rule, examine 
and construe all sentences by the best writers, containing 
a Subjunctive, verb. 

It must be borne in mind that it is the conjunction, 
and not the form of the verb that indicates the Subjunc- 
tive Mood. It is frequently the case that, not only the 
Indicative, but the Potential form is used- in the Sub- 
junctive — indeed the potential form is, apparently, more 
often used than any other, and that, too, in all its tenses ; 
as: 

If I may be permitted ; present or future time. 

If I can assist you; " " 

If I must yield; " " 

If I might conjecture ; present time.* 

If I could escape; present, past, or future.f 

If I would engage ; " " " 

If I could have seen ; past time, 
etc., etc., etc. 

The imperative and infinitive forms are never usad in 
the subjunctive : hence, in the sentence " if to be a sol- 
dier is your desire," the verb to be is not in the subjunc- 
tive after if, not only because it has the infinitive form, 
but because the sentence, transposed, reads: " if it is 
your desire to be a soldier," showing is to be the true sub- 
junctive. 

Does the form of the verb always indicate the subjunctive mood? 
Is the potential form sometimes used in the subjunctive mood? Give 
examples. Are the imperative and infinitive forms ever used in this 
mood? 

* Although might is regarded as the form of the imperfect potential, 
it nevertheless certainly indicates present time without have, as above. 

t "I thought if I could escape;" past. "I could escape this mo- 
ment;" pres. 






VERBS. Ill 

The imperative mood is used for commanding, 
exhorting and entrea.ting; as, " John ! return to- 
morrow." Soldiers ! stand firm. 

This mood has but one tense and one person — the pre- 
sent tense, the second person — as all commands must be 
given to a second person (not to a third), and must be 
given at the present time. 

The infinitive mood expresses the verb in gene- 
ral terms. It has neither nominative case, person, 
nor number. It is usually indicated by to being 
placed before it ; as, to walk ; to have walked. 

This mood will always take the word to before it, if 
not already expressed; as^ "I saw him go to school;" 
t. e., " I saw him to go to school." " Let little children 
come unto me ;" i. e., " Let little children to come unto 
me." By this it will be seen, that the use of to after 
such verbs, as see, let, hear, and some others, is very in- 
elegant; and, although we must supply the word in 
parsing, we must omit it in speaking or writing. 

The infinitive is often used as a nominative ; as, to see 
the sun is pleasant; to die (is), to sleep, no more" (£. e., 
is rto more than to sleep) ; " to sleep (is) perchance to 
dream. 

As the infinitive has no nominative case, it must have 
some other governing word, and this governing word is 
usually a verb, or the accusative after the verb ; but, in 
some cases, the infinitive is governed by adjectives (as, 
he is eager to learn) ; sometimes by pronouns, when they 
are the accusative of a verb (as, I saw him (to) depart ; 
I told him to return, etc.) The participle, also, consid- 



For what is the imperative mood used ? What peculiarity about 
this mood? What does the infinitive express? What peculiarities 
about it? How is it indicated? Is to always understood when not 
expressed? Is the infinitive sometimes used as a nominative? How 
is the infinitive governed ? 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ered as part of the verb, governs the infinitive ; as, he 
is going to return ; he is beginning to learn, etc. In 1 some 
instances the infinitive seems to have no governing 
word; as, " to proceed with the story," "to tell the 
truth," etc. We may, however, supply the words "If I 
am" before " to proceed" " to tell" etc., which would be 
more consistent. 



OF THE PARTICIPLE. 

The participle is a certain form of the verb, 
and derives its name from the fact that it partici- 
pates of the nature of a verb and an adjective ; as, 
" the soldier being wounded ;" i. e., wounded soldier, 
making wounded an adjective; or, soldier, who 
teas wounded, making was wounded a verb. 

The participle can always be thus construed, despite the 
seeming improbabilities in the case ; as, " on opening the 
box I found it empty." The word opening, as an adjective, 
belongs to the pronoun /; as a verb, it may be construed 
thus : " I, who was opening the box, found, etc." It is in 
its construction as a verb, only, that it can be made to 
govern the accusative box. 

The participle may also be construed as a noun, in the 
objective after a preposition, or the nominative to a 
verb; as, " on opening the box, I found it empty." 
Opening, as a noun, is the object of the preposition on. 
Hence, the same participle may be construed either as 
a noun, a verb, or an adjective ; nay, must be construed 
both as noun, verb and adjective, in all sentences like the 
above. " The taking of the census is attended by diffi- 
culties." The word taking is nominative to the verb is 1 . 
In this sentence taking is not properly a participle, 

What is the participle ? From what is its name derived? Give 
example of the construction of a participle. May the participle be 
construed as a noun? 



VERBS. 113 

although it may be construed as such ; for, as an adjec- 
tive, it may qualify person understood ; and, as a verb, 
we may say "person, who is taking the census. " But 
when we use this construction, we must change the rest 
of the sentence, and say, " the person who is taking the 
census meets with difficulties." 

The participle has three tenses and six forms, as 
follows : 



Present, { ^ n g g i oved . 
Perfect, j {^f i ovecL 
Compound Perfect, j Jj™| Gloved. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 

The Auxiliary Verbs are used to form the 
moods and tenses of the verb. 

They are, have, do, be, shall, will, may, can, with their 
variations ; and must, which has no variation. These 
auxiliary verbs are each confined to a certain mood or 
tense, as in the plan on page 121, by carefully studying 
which, you can always ascertain the mood and tense of 
any verb. The ed termination of the past tense is a 
contraction of did, the past of do, as John walk did, or 
John did walk, and always denotes the action expressed 
by the verb, to which it is prefixed, to be did, or done, 
past, or finished ; as, I loved, I ruled, I. smiled, which de- 
notes the actions of loving, ruling, smiling, to be did or 
done actions. 

How many tenses and forms has the participle ? Repeat them. For 
what are the auxiliary verbs used? What are the auxiliaries? What 
do they denote. 

10 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXPOSITION AND DEFINITION OF AUXILIARIES. 
We will that execution be done upon the earl. 
We will that you execute the earl. 
We will execute the earl. 

1. We will execute the earl to-morrow; there are evi- 
dently two actions, one of the mind, expressed by will, 
which denotes a present determination that somebody 
shall perform the other future action, denoted by execute. 

2. I will go to-morrow; will denotes a present deter- 
mination of the mind, that my body shall perform a 
future action, expressed by go; to-morrow qualifies go, 
not will. Will, denotes a present mental action. Go, 
denotes a future bodily action. 

3. I now will, or determine, that my body shall here- 
after go to New York, next week : Query. Does will and 
go express but one action? If so, which is it, present or 
future ? of the mind or body? Am I to go to New York 
next week, and will it afterward? 

4. You ought to write to your father ; ought denotes 
obligation, or duty. 

Ought is the obsolete past tense of the verb, to owe, 
and signifies an indebtedness. More properly, ought is 
the past tense of the obsolete verb ought. See Web. Diet. 

5. She may be at home ; may denotes possibility. 

6. You may go home ; may denotes liberty or permis- 
sion. 

7. I can strike the table ; can denotes possibility. 

8. May you find your friends well ; may denotes an 
act of the mind, a wish. 

9. You must return ; must denotes necessity. 

10. They might and should read ; might denotes that 
they have or had the power of performing an act, repre- 
sented as obligatory by the word should. 

11. I would that all men might be saved; would de- 
notes a desire or wish of the mind ; might denotes possi- 
bility. 



VERBS. 115 

12. You should repent; should denotes obligation aris- 
ing from duty. 

13. He would not read ; would denotes a resolution of 
the mind. 

14. I do write; do signifies action, performance. 

15. If he be saved : be denotes existence. 

16. I shall conquer ; shall represents a future act as 
sure and certain. 



FURTHER OBSERVATIONS RESPECTING THE AUXILIARIES. 
Bo and its past form did are used to give greater em- 
phasis to the verbs to which they are attached. Shall 
and will are often used emphatically, and sometimes im- 
peratively ;, as, you shall return, I will enter, etc. Can 
often signifies not only mere possibility, but great cer- 
tainty ; as, I can conquer my enemies. 



OF THE TENSES. 

Tense is the division of the verb in such a way 
as to express different periods of time. 

There are six tenses, the Pkesent, Perfect, 
Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Future Per- 
fect. 

The Present tense represents present time, or 
whatever is passing at the present moment; as, 
I walk, lam ivalking, I do ivalk, I am loved, etc. 

The Present tense may be, and very often is, used to 
denote future time; as, "I am going to town to-morrow ;" 
"you will, doubtless, be gone when I arrive" Particu- 
larly when the Subjunctive Mood is used: as, "if you 



For what other purpose are the auxiliaries used ? What is tense ? 
How many tenses are there, and what are their names ? What does 
the Present tense represent? How is the Present tense often used? 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sell the horse, return immediately;" "if you do receive 
the money by the first of the next month" The words 
am going, is going, are going, etc., when joined to verbs, 
in imitation of the French always express future time ; 
as, I am going to leave my home to-morrow. I am going 
to study my lesson directly, etc. 

This tense is sometimes used by historians in animated 
descriptions, to bring past actions, as it were, in array 
before us ; as, " He enters the territory of the peaceable 
inhabitants; he fights and conquers, takes an immense 
booty which he divides among his soldiers, and returns 
home to enjoy an empty triumph." 

The Perfect Tense represents time just now 
completed ; as, I have returned just now. I have 
completed my education, a little while ago. 

If we suppose the Present tense to represent the pass- 
ing moment of time, we shall then see that the Perfect 
' tense brings all past actions up to the very present mo- 
ment ; as, I have just eaten my breakfast. 

The Imperfect tense represents any past time ; 
as, / returned this morning ; Noah was saved ; 
God existed before the creation. 

"This tense," says Noah Webster, " is not properly 
named imperfect. All verbs of this form denote actions 
finished, past and perfect; as, 'In six days God made 
the world.' Imperfect or unfinished action is expressed 
in English in this manner: he was reading; they were 
writing. 11 , 

There is much truth in the above. It would be much 
better to denominate this the indefinite tense, or the in- 
definite past, after the manner- of French, or rather an 
improvement on the French, who call this tense the pre- 
terite definite; the perfect of the English being called 
preterite indefinite. If these names were directly re- 

Wbat does the perfect tense denote? The imperfect? What does 
Noah Webster say of this tense? 



VERBS. 117 

versed, they would then indicate, with great precision, 
the time of the respective tenses. 

The imperfect or indefinite tense is very often used in 
the sense of the perfect; as, "I went, just now, to the 
postoffice." " I went, a moment ago, into the other room." 
This tense may even be used to denote time much nearer 
the present moment than the perfect ; as, I looked at you 
just now, and saw you smile as I have seen you smile 
many a time before.' 7 To convince any person that the 
above is good English, let him attempt to transpose the 
tenses in the above, " I have looked," etc. 

Mighty could, would and should, the words used to indi- 
cate the imperfect of the potential (Latin subjunctive), 
are all occasionally used to represent future time, and 
almost always so used when placed after a subjunctive 
conjunction; as, "if it should rain to-morrow;" "if 1 
might be permitted ;" " if I could translate the sentence;" 
" if he would pay me the balance of the debt," etc. It 
may be thought that some of the above indicate present 
time ; granted : yet no one, however stupid, could for a 
moment suppose that they indicate time that is past or 
imperfect. 

The imperfect is often used to express present time, 
in the indicative, when it is employed immediately after 
another verb of the same tense ; as, "Then Manasseh 
knew that the Lord, he was G-od" (i. e., is God). "It 
was just remarked that marine fossils did not comprise 
vegetable remains." " Cicero vindicated the truth, and 
inculcated the value of the precept, that nothing was 
truly useful which was not honest." " He undertook to 
show that justice was of perpetual obligation." " The 
apostle knew that the present season was the only time 
allowed for this preparation." "I told him if he went 
to-morrow, I should go with him." This latter indicates 
future time. Webster declares that these are incorrect 
modes of expression, and contrary to the genius of the 
language ; nevertheless, they have the full sanction and 
approbation *of every distinguished writer and speaker 

How is the imperfect tense often used ? How are might, could, would 
and should occasionally used? When particularly so used? Does the 
imperfect often express present time ? Give examples. Are these ex- 
pressions considered proper ? 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of the present age. It would be better, in nearly every 
case, to substitute the infinitive or present indicative for 
that tense ; as, " Manasseh knew the Lord to be God." 
" It was remarked that fossils do not, etc." " Cicero 
vindicated that nothing is useful, etc." " I told him if 
he should go to-morrow, etc." In this latter case the 
subjunctive, in the potential form, seems the better ex- 
pression. 

Webster urges the adopting of this form of speech, 
and we would also heartily advocate it. 

But when both verbs point to a past action, the use of 
the imperfect is correct ; as, " he saw that his friend was 
falling down the cliff;" " he held that the law of nations 
prohibited the use of poisoned arms" (i. e., prohibited at 
that time). 

The difference to be observed in the use of the perfect 
and imperfect tense is briefly this : The perfect tense 
should be employed when we speak of some period of 
time, not yet completed : as, I have written a letter to-day. 
I have paid my bills this month ; I have studied French 
this year, etc. To-day, this month and this year being 
periods of time not yet fully elapsed, we use the perfect 
tense. On the contrary, we use the imperfect tense in 
speaking of a period of time that is fully completed ; as, 
I went to town yesterday, or last week, or last month ; but 
not correct to say this morning, this week, etc., unless fol- 
lowed by another verb in the imperfect, expressing a 
past action ; as, " I went to town this morning, and met 
my friend." The perfect tense is also used in speaking 
of the past acts of a nation, people, tribe, class or sect 
not yet extinct ; as, " The Jesuits have (always) claimed 
great power;" " The English have conquered many 
countries," etc. But of the Eomans, we would not say, 
" they have subdued the Gauls," or the " Eomans have 
conquered the Britons," since they no longer exist as a 
nation. 

The pluperfect tense is used to indicate an 
action that had taken place at or before the per- 

What would be a better substitute for the imperfect, when used to 
express present time? Give examples. Should the imperfect be some- 
times used? When? What is the difference to be observed in the use 
of the perfect and imperfect tense ? For what is the pluperfect tense 
used? 






VERBS. 119 

formance of some other act; as, I had finished 
when you returned. 

The pluperfect must have existed prior to the im- 
perfect : heuce we never can use the pluperfect tense 
unless it precedes a subjoined clause containing a verb 
in the imperfect or pluperfect tense ; as, God had created 
the world when he formed man. This subjoined clause 
may be omitted, if it has been previously mentioned 
either interrogatively or in direct affirmation ; as, " What 
had you been doing previous to my return?" " I had 
visited the fair, and had been to the concert " The plu- 
perfect goes back to the very beginning of all time; as, 
" if God had not existed prior to the creation, the uni- 
verse would have been a blank." 

The future tense simply denotes future time ; 
as, I will return {%. e. 9 at some future time). 

The future perfect denotes a period of time 
antecedent to the future simple ; as, I shall have 
accomplished my design before you will be able to 
baffle my efforts. 

This tense is generally followed by the present indica- 
tive, in the sense of the future ; as, " I shall have com- 
pleted my studies when you return." The future perfect 
occupies a place nearer the present than the future sim- 
ple ; as, " I shall have finished this task (on which I am 
now emplo3 r ed) by the time you will come back." 

Shall, which indicates the first future, in the first per- 
son, simply foretells, as, I shall go. In tlie second and 
third person, shall promises, commands and threatens ; 
as, thou shalt not steal ; " ye shall surely die." In inter- 
rogative sentences, we find the reverse ; as, shall I return 

When only can we use the pluperfect tense? Give example. How 
far back does the pluperfect reach? What does the future tense de- 
note ? The future perfect ? By what is this tense sometimes followed ? 
What is said of shall? 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 






to-morrow? i. e., may I (permission)? Shall never ex- 
presses the will or purpose of its nominative. We do 
not say, " I shall succeed," but u I will succeed." " I 
shall be rewarded," indicates the purpose of some other 
person to reward. 



SCALE OF THE TENSES. 

PRESENT. FUTURE. 



PLUPERFECT. 


IMPERFECT. 


PERFECT. 


PRESENT. 


most remote 


Indefinite 


Present 


Present 


time. 


past. 


time 
completed 


moment. 



FUTURE PERFECT. 

Future time, 
nearest present. 



FUTURE. 

Indefi- ■ 

nite 
future. 



Line representing the passage of time. 



OF PERSON AND NUMBER. 

The person and number of the verb are gene- 
rally indicated by the nominative ; as, first per- 
son, / love, second person, thou lovest, third, he 
loves, for the singular ; and we love, you love, they 
love, for the first, second and third person plural. 

The second person singular is seldom used, except by 
the poets, the second person plural taking its place ; as, 
you owe me a shilling, instead of thou owest, etc. The 
Quakers use the accusative of the third person singular, 
with the verb ; as, thee is ; this is an outrageous error. 
The second person is sometimes used without the pro- 
noun, in imitation of the Latin ; as, " Hearest me, Cas- 
si us ? " Always interrogatively. 



What is said of will? Describe the scale of the tenses? How are 
the person and number of the verb indicated ? What is said about 
the second person singular ? Is it sometimes used without the pro- 
noun ? 



VERBS. 121 

Recapitulation. 

SYNOPSIS OF MOODS AND TENSES. 

Moods. Tenses. Auxiliaries and Terminations. 

Indicative — Simply indicates or declares. 

Present, represents present time, I , 

Perfect, " present time completed, I have ed, 

Imperfect, " past time, I ed, 

Pluperfect, " past time completed, I had ed, 

Future, " future time, I shall or will 

Future P., " future time com., I shall or will have ed 

Imperative — used for commanding, exhorting, entreating or permitting. 
Present, thou or ye. 

Potential — implies possibility, liberty, power, will or obligation. 

Present, I may, can or must , 

Perfect, I may, can or must have ed, 

Imperfect, I might, could, would or should ~, 

Pluperfect, I might, could, would or should have — ed. 

Subjunctive — represents an action as contingent and future. 

Present, *lf I , 

Perfect, If I have — ed, 

Imperfect, If I ed, 

Pluperfect, If I had ed, 

Future, If I shall ?r will , 

Future Perfect, If I shall or will have ed. 

Infinitive — has no nominative case, consequently no person or number. 

Present, To , 

Perfect, To have ed. 

Participle — p"ar takes of the nature of a verb and adjective. 

Present, ing. Perfect, — ed. 

Com. Perfect, ing, ed. 



THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS, 
In English, regular verbs have but one conjugation ; 
that is, one form of the regular and fixed changes which 
a verb undergoes to express the different moods and 
tenses. 



Give a synopsis of the moods and tenses. How many conjugations 
have verbs in English? # 

* Or any other subjunctive conjunction; as, though, unless, etc. 
11 



122 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 






Transitive verbs have two forms, called the active and 
passive voice. Intransitive verbs have but one form ; 
as it has already been shown that an intransitive verb 
can not be changed to a passive. 

Verbs are regular when their past tense and perfect 
participle end in ed ; as — 



PRESENT. 

love, 
walk, 



PAST. 

loved, 
walked, 



PERF. PART. 

loved, 
walked, etc. 



CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR AND AUXILIARY VERB, TO HAVE. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



. PRESENT. 

Singular. 
I have, 
thou hast, 
he has or hath. 



PERFECT. 

Singular. 
I have had, 
thou hast had, 
he has had. 



Plural Plural. 

we have, we have had, 

ye or you have, you have had^ 

they have. they have had. 



FIRST 

Singular. 
I shall have, 
thou shalt have, 
he shall have. 



FUTURE. 

Plural. 
we shall have, 
you shall have, 
they shall have. 



IMPERFECT. 

Singular. 
I had, 
thou hadst, 
he had. 

Plural. 
we had, 
ye or you had, 
they had. 



Singular. 
I shall have had 
thou shalt have (l 
he shall have " 



PLUPERFECT. 

Singular. 
I had had, 
thou hadst had, 
he had had. 

Plural. 
we had had, 
ye or you had had, 
they had had. 

URE PERFECT. 

Plural. 
we shall have had, 
you shall have " 
they shall have " 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT. PERFECT. 

Singular. 
I may have had, 
thou mayst have had, 
he may have had. 



Singular. 
I may or can have, 
thou mayst have, 
he may or can have. 

Plural. Plural. 

We may or can have, we may have had, 
you may or can have, you may have had, 
they may or can have, they may have had. 



IMPERFECT. 



Singular. 
I might or could have, 
thou mightst have, 
he might or could have. 

Plural. 
we might or could have, 
you might or could have, 
they might or could " 



How many forms has the transitive verb? What are these forms 
called? How many forms has the intransitive? When are verbs 
regular ? Give examples. 






VERBS — TO HAVE AND TO DO. 



123 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, or would have had, we might, could or would have had, 
thou mightst, couldst, etc., have had, you might, could, etc., have had, 
he might, could, would, etc., " they might, could, etc., have had. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT. 

Singular. 
If I have, 
If thou have, 
If he have. 

Plural. 
If we have, 
If you have, 
If they have,- 



PERFECT. 

Singular. 
If I have had, 
If thou hast had, 
If he has had. 



IMPERFECT. 

Singular. 
If I had, 
If thou had, 
If he had, 



PLUPERFECT. 

Singular. 
If I had had, 
If thou hadst had, 
If he had had. 



Plural. Plural. Plural. 

If we have had, If we had, If we had had, 
If you have had, If you had, If you had had, 
If they have had, If they had, If they had had. 
Future and future perfect like the indicative. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 
Have thou. 



Plural. 
Have ye. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. <• PERFECT TENSE. 

To have. To have had. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present, having. Perfect, had. Com. Perfect, having had. 



PRES. PERF. 

Do, have done, 



SYNOPSIS OF THE VERB DO. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

IMPERF. PLUP. FIRST FUT. 

did, had done, will do, 
POTENTIAL MOOD. 



SECOND FUT. 

shall have done. 



PRESENT. 

May do, 



PERF. 

may have done, 



IMPERF. 

might do, 



PLUPERF. 

might have done. 



f other tenses 
\ like indicative. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. PERF. IMPERF. PLUPERFECT. 

If I do, if I have done, if I did, if I had done. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present tense, do. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present, to do ; perfect, to have done. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present, doing. Perfect, done. Com. perf., having done. 



124 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



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VERBS. 125 



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VERBS. 



127 






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128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

. PROGRESSIVE AND EMPHATIC FORMS. 
Verbs in the active or neuter voice may be conjugated 
through all their moods and tenses by adding their pre- 
sent participle to the various inflections of the verb to be. 
This is called the progressive form, inasmuch as it ex- 
presses incomplete action, or a state of continuation ; as/ 

PRESENT. PERFECT. PAST. 

I am loving, I have been loving, I was loving, 

Thou art loving, Thou hast been loving, Thou wast loving, 

He is loving. He has been loving. He was loving. 

The emphatic form is indicated by do or did, used in 
the indicative past and present only ; as, 

PRESENT. IMPERFECT. 

I do love, I did love, 

Thou dost love, Thou didst love, 

He does love. He did love. 



OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

Impersonal or monopersonal verbs are so called be- 
cause they are used only in the third person singular of 
each tense. The verbs used as impersonals are — to rain, 
to snow, to freeze, to thaw, to lighten, to thunder and to blow. 

The following are also often used as impersonal verbs : 
to begin, to happen, to fall out, to seem, to become, to suit, 
to belong, to come, to amount, to appear, to suffice, to follow, 
to concern, to commence, to remain, to be, and a few others. 



PRESENT. 


IMPERFECT. 


Can, 


could, 


May, 


might, 


Must, 


must, 


Ought,* 


ought. 



DEFECTIVE VEBBS. 

The defective verbs are such as are used only in a part 
of their moods and tenses ; as, 

PRESENT. IMPERFECT. 

quoth, 

Shall, should, 

Will, would, 

Wis, wist. 



What are the defective verbs? How can we determine the tense 
of ought ? 

* Ought is often used in the pluperfect ; as, 4< I had ought to have 
known better." This use is very improper: it should be, "I ought to 
Lave known better." 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



129 



To ivit, signifying to say, is also a defective verb, used 
only in the infinitive; as, "to wit, namely," etc. 

Quoth and ought are used always as independent or 
principal verbs; as, " he quoth"— "he ought to do it." 
We determine the tense of ought by the infinitive which 
follows it; as, '" he ought to go," in which ought is pre- 
sent, because it precedes the infinitive present. " He 
ought to have gone," in which ought is past, as it pre- 
cedes the infinitive perfect. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
Irregular verbs are those which do not form their im- 
perfect tense and perfect participle by the addition of d 
or ed to the present tense ; as, 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Go, 
Begin, 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Went, 
Began, 



PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

Gone. 
Begun. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Those marked r admit 



Present. 

Abide, 

Am, 

Arise, 

Awake, 

Bear, to bring \ 

forth, J 

Bear, to carry, 
Beat, 
Begin, 
Bend, 
Bereave, 
Beseech, 
Bid, 
Bind, 
Bite, 
Bleed, 
Blow, 
Break, 
Breed, 
Bring, 
Build, 
Burst, 
Buy, 
Cast, 
Catch, 
Chide, 
Choose, 
Cleave, to sticlc 

or adhere, 
Cleave, to spUf, 
Cling, 
Clothe, 
Come, 



Imperfect. 
abode, 
was, 
arose, 
awoke, r. 

bare, 

bore, 

beat, 

began, 

bent, 

bereft, r. 

besought, 

bid, bade, 

bound, 

bit, 

bled, 

blew, 

broke, 

bred, 

brought, 

built, 

burst, 

bought, 

cast, 

caught, r. 

chid, 

chose, 

regular. 

clove or cleft, 
clung, 
clothed, 
came, 



P erf. or Pass. Part. 
abode, 
been, 
arisen, 
awaked. 

born. 

borne. 

beaten, beat, 
begun, 
bent, 
bereft, r. 
besought, 
bidden, bid. 
bound, 
bitten, bit. 
bled, 
blown, 
broken, 
bred, 
brought, 
built, 
burst, 
bought, 
cast. 

. caught, r. 
chidden, chid, 
chosen. 



cleft, cloven, 
clung, 
clad, r. 



likewise a 


regular form. 


Present. 


. Imperfect 


Cost, 


cost, 


Crow, 


crew, r. 


Creep, 


crept, 


Cut, 


cut, 


Dare, to venture,dvLtst, 


Dare, to chal- 1 „ 


lenge, 


J" 


Deal, 


dealt, r. 


Dig, 


dug, r. 


Do, 


did, 


Draw, 


.drew, 


Drive, 


drove, 


Drink, 


drank, 


Dwell, 


dwelt, r. 


Eat, 


eat or ate, 


Fall, 


fell, 


Feed, 


fed, 


Feel, 


felt, 


Fight, 


fought, 


Find, 


found, 


Flee, 


fled, 


Fling, 


flung, 


Fly, 


flew, 


Forget, 


forgot, 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


Freeze, 


froze, 


Get, 


got, 


Gild, 


gilt, r. 


Gird, 


girt, r. 


Give, 


gave, 


Go, 


went, 


Grave, 


graved, 


Grind, 


ground, 



Perf. or Pass. Part. 
cost, 
crowed, 
crept, 
cut. 
dared. 



dealt, r. 

dug, r. 

done. 

drawn. 

driven, 

drunk. 

dwelt, r. 

eaten, 

fallen. 

fed. 

felt. 

fought. 

found. 

fled. 

flung. 

flown. 

forgotten, forgot 

forsaken. 

frozen. 

got.* 

gilt, r. 

girt, r. 

given. 

gone. 

graven, r. 

ground. 



When is a verb irregular ? Give examples. 

* Crotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound, forgotten, is still in good use. 



130 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Per/, or Pass. Part. 


Present. 


Imperfect. Perf. or Pass. Part. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown, 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Have, 


had, 


had, 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Hang, 


hung, r. 


hung, r. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewn, r. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, hid. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Slit, 


slit, r. 


slit, or slitted. 


Hold, 


held, 


held. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown, r. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 


Knit, 


knit, r. 


knit, r. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Spend, 


' spent, 


spent. 


Lade, 


laded, 


laden. 


Spill, 


spilt, r. 


split, r. 


Lay, 


laid, 


• laid. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spit, spitten. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Split, 


split, 


split, r. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang, sprung. 


Lie, to lie downplay, 


lain. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Load, 


loaded, 


laden, r. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Sting, 


stung, 
stunk, 


stung. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Stink, 


stunk. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mown, r. 


Stride, 


strode or strid. stridden. 


Pay, 

Put, 


paid, 
put, 


paid, 
put. 


Strike, 


struck, 


fstruck'or 
\ stricken. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 




„i-^ m fstrowed, or 
strew ' { strewed, 


f strown, strowed, 
\ strewed. 


Ride, 


rode, 


rode, ridden.* 


Strowo?* 


Ring, 


rung, rang, 


rung. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Sweat, 


swet, r. 


swet, r. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen, r. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Swim, 


swum, swam, 


swum. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawn, r. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


See, 
Seek, 


saw, 


seen. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


sought, 


sought. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Sell, 
Send, 


sold, 


sold. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


sent, 


sent# 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Thrive, 


throve, r. 


thriven. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, shapen. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaven, r. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shorn. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxen, r. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Shine, 


shone, 


shone. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Shrink, 
Shred, 


shrunk,f 
shred, 


,shrunk. 
shred. 


Work, 


wrought, r. 


/wrought, or 
\ worked, r. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


Sing, 


sung, sang, 
sunk, sank, 


sung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 


Sink, 


sunk. 















Observations. 

Many verbs are often used both transitively and in- 
transitively ; as, " he sings well ;" in which sings, having 
no accusative after it, and requiring none, is intransi- 
tive. " Can you sing a song?" in which sing is transi- 
tive, governing the accusative 'song. To dance, to live, to 
eat, to drink, and some others, are included in this class. 
To do and to have are sometimes used intransitively ; as, 



Are some verbs used both transitively and intransitively ? 



* Ridden is nearly obsolete. 



t Shrank is nearly obsolete. 






VERBS. 131 

"you would do better there;" "how do you do?" "I 
have enough to do ;" " you had better go," etc. 

Some intransitive verbs seem to be used (improperly) 
in a passive form ; as, John is arrived, instead of has 
arrived. If, however, we consider arrived an adjective, 
belonging to John, and is intransitive, this mode of 
expression may not be regarded as wholly improper. 
"He is returned" and " he is alive" may be considered 
as sentences having relations similar to one another. 

Prepositions are sometimes added to intransitive verbs, 
thereby rendering them transitive ; as, to give up, to lay 
out, etc. Prepositions thus annexed sometimes give quite 
another signification, as in the words to cast, which sig- 
nifies to throw ; and, to cast up, which signifies to compute. 
Prepositions joined to transitive 1 " verbs sometimes render 
them intransitive ; as, to hold on, to get up, to call out, to 
cry out, etc. The verbs to grow and to lie should never 
be used transitively. 

There is a peculiarity about the verbs teach, tell, ask, 
forbid, deny, and one or two others of this class that de- 
serves notice. They may all be used transitively, under 
a passive form ; as, i" was taught the language ; I have been 
told the secret; he was asked a question; I have been for- 
bidden an entrance ; they were denied the privilege, etc. 

Some of these verbs may also be used intransitively, 
under a passive form ; as, I have been well taught. Here 
have been taught is not a passive verb, for a person can 
not be taught or communicated like knowledge or edu- 
cation. 

He teaches (well), intransitive verb. 

I teach language, transitive verb. 

Language is taught (by me), passive verb. 

I am taught the language, transitive verb. 

/ am taught (better), intransitive verb. 

Compare the last form I am taught with the passive 
form language is taught, and the difference is at once ap- 
parent. Nevertheless, as this is the passive form of the 
verb, there might be no great impropriety in calling it 
* 

Are prepositions sometimes added to intransitive verbs?* Does this 
render them transitive? Does it sometimes change the signification 
of the verb ? What peculiarity is there about the verbs teach, tell, 
ask, etc.? 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

passive, particularly as it may be changed to the active 
form, he taught me better. It is of little consequence 
what name we bestow upon a part of speech if we un 
derstand its syntax or relation. , 



OF ADVERBS. 

An adverb is a word having a single relation 
to a verb, being used to modify it ; as, John walks 
slowly ; the bird flies swiftly, etc. 

An adverb can not be joined to any word except a 
verb, for the moment it is added to any other word it 
ceases to be an ad-verb* 

Adverbs may be compared like adjectives ; as, 



POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


Often, 


oftener, 


oftenest. 


Much, 


more, 


most. 


Soon, 


sooner, 


soonest. 


Quickly, 


more quickly, 


most quickly. 



Adverbs may be formed from adjectives by- 
adding ly ; as, qaich, quickly ; wise, wisely, etc. 

All words ending in ly are not adverbs, as many ad- 
jectives are formed from nouns by adding ly ; as, man, 
manly, etc. 

The numeral adjectives, first, second, third, etc., are 
converted into adverbs by adding ly ; thus: first-ly, 
second-ly, etc. (First-ly, improper. See dictionary.) 

The first three numerals, one, two and three, are 
changed into once, twice and thrice, when used as adverbs. 

Adverbs are formed from nouns by adding a as a pre- 
fix; as, aboard, aground, afoot, etc. 

And, nevertheless and notwithstanding, may be called 
adverbs when they open a sentence. 

What is an adverb? Can an adverb be joined to any word except 
a verb ? Hgw may adverbs be compared? How may they be formed ? 
How are numeral adjectives converted into adverbs ? What other 
words are adverbs ? 



See auxiliary adj., adv. and prep., page 68. 



ADVEEBS. 133 

No and yes are adverbs, qualifying the verbs to which 
they reply. 

Some nouns and adjectives, when used with a prepo- 
sition, n\ay be called adverbs, or adverbial phrases; as, 
on board, on hand, in general, in fact, etc. 

Many prepositions are used as adverbs ; as, " Now 
came still evening on; 1 ' "he went up into an exceeding 
high mountain," etc. 

To-day, yesterday and to-morrow may not improperly 
be called adverbs, inasmuch as they always sustain a re- 
lation to some verb. Lennie recommends to call them 
nouns, governed by some appropriate preposition under- 
stood ; as, on or during. 

In short, any word holding an indisputable relation to 
a verb, in a modifying sense, must be an adverb. 



OF AUXILIARY ADVERBS. 

An auxiliary or secondary adverb is a word 
which is added to an adverb for the purpose of 
modifying it; as, very, more, most, etc. 

These words, like auxiliary adjectives or prepositions, 
have always been considered as adverbs, by old writers. 
We can not see the propriety of the name. The general 
term adjective would have been more appropriate. 

Adverbs can not qualify nouns. 

(See adjectives, page 96.) 



OF THE PREPOSITION. 

A Preposition is a word placed before a noun 
or pronoun, and serves to connect the phrase in 
which it occurs, to the verb, noun, adjective or 
adverb preceding it; as, John is in the room; 
this is the house of my father. 

What is an auxiliary adverb? What do old writers call these 
words ? Can adverbs qualify nouns ? What is a preposition ? 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Grammarians do not seem to have understood tlio 
nature and use of the preposition. Smith says " a pre- 
position is a word used to connect words, and show the 
relation between them." A more vague or unsatisfac- 
tory definition could not have been given. We* may say 
the same of the conjunction, the transitive verb, or the 
pronoun. Here, is one-half the number of " parts of 
speech," actually showing a relation between words, and 
connecting them together. Says Lennie, "a preposition is 
a word put before nouns and pronouns, to show the rela- 
tion between them!''' By which we are to suppose that 
prepositions show a relation between nouns and pro- 
nouns only ! But, say the learned grammarians, " a 
preposition shows the relation between words/' Now, if 
the is a definite article and defines the word relation, it 
must point out to us the kind of relation that exists be- 
tween the object of a preposition and the preceding sen- 
tence — Does it? What relation is "the relation?" Can 
Mr. Murray, Kirkham, Smith, Lennie, or any other dis- 
tinguished grammarian tell ? No ; not one of them — 
They have but just been able to discover that such a 
relation exists, but what is its nature they have not 
ascertained, or if they have, they have never defined it. 

If we consult the genius of language, we shall learn 
that the use of the preposition was, originally, to con- 
nect all sentences back to the verb; as, John is in the 
room ; he returned from school, etc. Afterwards the 
preposition of* was used to connect phrases back to 
nouns or pronouns, and give the phrase in which it 
occurs, an adjective relation to the noun or pronoun 
preceding. For, in, among, and some other prepositions, 
may occasionally be found holding a syntax to a noun 
or pronoun in the preceding sentence. 

This seems to have been the original office of the pre- 
position ; but a higher refinement of language rendered 

Is the relation of the preposition generally understood? What do 
we learn from the language ? Does of generally give its phrase an 
adjective relation to the preceding noun ? What has been rendered 
necessary by a higher refinement of language ? 



• Of is not always used to denote the genitive. When it signifies 
about or concerning, it has a relation to a preceding verb instead of a 



PREPOSITION. lBo 

it necessary that the preposition should sometimes con- 
nect its phrase back to an adjective or adverb, in which 
case the relation would be either that of an auxiliary 
adjective or adverb ; as, "The soul, uneasy and confined 
from home ; " "Full of its original spirit ; " "Essential to 
the cause;" "He answered evasively, in a measure;" 
(i. e., somewhat evasively.) 

Hence we see that the preposition has four relations, 
and four only, as follows : 

1. Adverbial; as, the table stands on the floor; the 
bird flies over the house,* etc. 

2. Adjective; as, the bark of a tree; "the regard of 
Heaven on his ways," etc.f 

3. Auxiliary Adjective ; as, disagreeable to the ear ; 
anxious in his behalf, etc. 

4. Auxiliary adverbial ; as, he moved slowly, in 
truth ; % he writes well, beyond dispute, etc. 

There are but few instances of prepositions being 
construed under the latter form : — in almost all cases 
prepositions following adverbs do not modify those ad- 
verbs, but hold a relation back to the verb; as, he sat 
silently in doubt; i. e., he sat in doubt. "The moon 
smiles serenely o'er nature's soft repose ;" i. e., smiles o'er 
repose. No preposition can hold a relation to an adjec- 
tive or adverb, unless the phrase in which it (the prepo- 
sition) occurs, clearly modifies the adjective or adverb 
to which it may be joined. 

All prepositional phrases qualify the words to which 
they are joined, like other adverbs, adjectives or auxilia- 
ries. For further consideration of this subject, see Eela- 
tions of Phrases, 

How many relations has the preposition? What are they? What 
do all prepositional phrases qualify ? 

* The relation is adverbial also when the preposition has a syntax to 
a participle. 

t The relation is adjective when the preposition is referred to a pro- 
noun, since the pronoun is only the representative of the noun itself. 

% In truth can not be an adverbial phrase qualifying moved; as that 
would not express the sense of the sentence. 



136 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The following list presents most of the prepo- 
sitions : — 



Among 
around 


as touching 
at 


concerning near . 
down of 


touching 
up 


amidst 

athwart 

after 


by 

below 

between 


except off 
excepting on 
for over 


upon 

under 

underneath 


about 


beneath 


from out of 


unto 


against 
across 


behind 
betwixt 


in respecting 
into to 


via 
with 


above 


beside 


instead of towards* 


within 


according to 
as for 


beyond - 
before 


like through 
next than 


without 


as to 


but 


notwithstanding throughout 





OF AUXILIARY PREPOSITIONS, 

An auxiliary preposition is a word holding a 
single relation to a preposition, and is used to 
modify its sense or restrict its extension ; as, he 
went almost to Albany; he stood far above all 
others ; the house is quite near the river. 

A few words only are used as auxiliary prepositions. 
They belong to the heterogeneous class of words de- 
nominated adverbs by most authors ; although, in gene- 
ral, they do not seem to have observed the peculiar 
construction of these few words at all. It is impossible 
to say what they would denominate such words as almost, 
far and quite , in the above sentences, as they have no 
rule by which an adverb can be made to qualify a prepo- 
sition. 



OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions are used to join words and sen- 
tences together. 

Hence the conjunction is a word of a double relation. 
The, conjunction and preposition both belong to the class 

Repeat the list of prepositions. What is an auxiliary preposition? 
What is its relation? What is a conjunction? What is its relation? 

* Not toward — see note ( || ) page 172. , . 



CONJUNCTION. 137 

of words denominated " connectives ;" but there is this 
difference : a preposition connects nouns or pronouns 
only, on one side ; to verbs, nouns, adjectives or adverbs 
on the other. The noun or pronoun which follows the 
preposition must be in the objective case ; and the words 
which precede it may be of any case if a noun, or of any 
mood or tense, person or number, if a verb ; but wo 
must observe that — 

Conjunctions usually connect the same moods 
and tenses of verbs; the same cases of nouns; 
verbs governed by the same nominatives; adjec- 
tives belonging to the same nouns ; and nouns or 
pronouns having the same or similar syntax, rela- 
tion or construction in a sentence, generally. 



OF AUXILIARY OR CORRESPONDING CONJUNCTIONS. 

An auxiliary or corresponding conjunction is 
one that holds a relation to another conjunction ; 
as follows : 

Both — and; both he and his brother have come. 

Neither — nor ; neither he nor I did it. 

Wliether — or ; I know not whether it be so or not. 

Though — yet ; though he was rich, yet for our sakes, etc. 

Either — or ; either you or I must yield. 

As — as ; as wise as a serpent. 

As — so ; as he sows so shall he reap. 

So — as; I am not so rich as thou. 

So — that ; he was so lame that he could not walk. 

In parsing, we usually say that the first of these words 
(as ?ieither or whether) is a corresponding conjunction, 
and corresponds to the second, (nor or or, etc.) 

This is only a partial consideration of these words; 

What is the difference between the preposition and conjunction? 
What do conjunctions usually connect? What are the corresponding 
conjunctions? How do we parse them? 

12 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

for, in addition to their office as corresponding conjunc- 
tions, they can, in almost every case, be construed as 
conjunctions, adjectives, auxiliary adjectives or adverbs : 
As 16 the young bears seized on the repast, so 16 we snatch our fill. 

Now, this word as is a corresponding conjunction, cor- 
responding to so; and expressing a comparison of 
equality between the two sentences, like the sign of 
equality (not plus, nor minus) in Mathematics ; thus : — 

&, as 16 bears seized repast ==, 

1, so 16 we snatch fill ==. 

If you wish to make as a conjunction, invert the terms 
2 and 1, thus : 

1, So 16 we snatch our fill, 

2, As 16 the bears- seized on the rich repast. 

In all cases, one of the corresponding conjunctions must 
be exiled or thrown out of its proper place. Both these 
conjunctions maybe inserted between the two sentences, 
thus : 

The bears seized on the repast, so ===== as we snatch our fill. 
By rendering this sentence plenary (full), both conjunc- 
tions will have their proper place and relation : 

The bears seized on the repast, so 16 we snatch our fill ; 

and, 

We snatch our fill, as 16 the bears seized the repast. 

In the following sentence : 

2, If 16 you wish to be a grammarian, 
1, You must study, 

If is exiled from its proper place. Now, invert the sen- 
tences, thus : — 

1 , You must 'study, 

2, If you wish to be a grammarian. 

and If occupies its proper place between the sentences it 
connects. 

Again : "Both he and his brother returned.' 7 Eela- 
tion of both: both persons ; i. e., both is an adjective, be- 
longing to persons, understood. 

Neither he nor I did it. That is — 

1, Neither he did it ; 

2, nor I did it. 



Plow can corresponding conjunction? be construed? Give examples 



ANALYSIS 0£ VARIOUS PARTS OF SPEECH. 189 

1st relation (of nor) : he did it nor I did it. 
2d relation (of neither) : I did it neither he did it. 
Or neither may be construed as an adjective by joining 
it to persons understood. 

I know not whether it is so or not. 
Bel. of whether : I know not whether it is so, (conj.) 
Bel. of or : it is so or it is not so, (conj.) 

'Though he slept, yet he dreamed not. 

Bel. of, yet : He slept, yet he dreamed, (conj.) 

1. Bel. of though : He dreamed not, though he slept, (conj.) 

Either you or I must yield. 

Bel. of or: you (must yield) or I must yield, (conj,) 

1. Bel. of either : I must yield either you must yield, (conj.) 

2. Bel of either : either person, (adj.) 

Be thou as wise as a serpent. 
Bel. of 1st as : as wise, (aux. adj.) 

Bel. of 2d as: be thou wise as serpent (is wise), (conj.) 

I am not so rich as thou. 
Bel. of so: so rich, (aux. adj.) 

Bel. of as: I am not rich as thou (art rich), (conj.) 

He was so lame that he could not walk. 
Bel. of so : so lame, (aux. adj.) 

Bel. of that : he was lame that he could not walk, (conj.) 
"Neither sometimes closes a sentence in a peculiar 
manner, thus : " Men come not to the knowledge of ideas 
thought to be innate, till they come to the use of reason ; 
nor then neither." — Locke. 

[That is, not either when they come to the use of reason, 
nor before.] 

" Formerly in English, as in Greek and French, two 
negatives were used for one negation. But in such 
phrases as that above, good speakers now use either in- 
stead of neither. 1 ' — Webster's Dictionary. 
Bel. of neither : come not neither, (adv.) 
Bel. of either : come not either, (adv.) 



ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS PARTS OF SPEECH, 

In accordance with the Table of Relations on page 28, and the axioms on 

page 74. 

From the following observations it will be seen that 

the adverb, preposition, conjunction and pronoun so fre- 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

quently change their position, office or signification, that 
unless we have some surer guide than a mere list to be 
committed to memory, we never can be fully secure 
against falling into error. The figures indicate the part 
of speech of these variable words by referring them to 
the table of relations. These exercises should also be 
used in connection with those on page 62, 63, 64, etc., 
the class being required to parse and give the gelation 
of all the words marked with figures until they are 
thoroughly understood, as this is one of the most im- 
portant exercises in English grammar. 



As is a conjunction when used to connect sentences or 
words; as, "he paused as 16 he spoke." 

As is a relative pronoun when it relates to an antece- 
dent and can be construed in any one of the six positions 
or cases of the noun; as, " Much 8 as 3 man desires, a little 
will suffice." 

As is a compound relative when it is equal to that 
which; as, he speaks 8 as 6 * 6 he thinks. 

As is an auxiliary adverb when joined to another ad- 
verb; as, he drinks as 20 well as* I (drink). 

As is an auxiliary adjective when joined to another 
adjective; as, he is as 19 good as* I (am). 

(As can not be used as a preposition ; it is incorrect to 
say, " I am as good as him, etc.) 

But is a conjunction when used as a connective; as, 
" I can go, but 16 I will not (go)." 

But is a preposition when it governs a noun or pro- 
noun in the objective case, and connects its phrase back to 
some noun, pronoun, verb, adjective or adverb ; as, "All 
have gone but 13 me." Eelation, " All but me." f 

But is an adverb when it holds an adverbial relation 
to a verb, in the sense of only ; as, " lam but 12 doing my 
duty;" (qualifies am doing.) 



9 The second as a conjunction. 

t But me is a complement of all; i. e., all, less me. 



ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS PARTS OF SPEECH. 141 

Both is a corresponding conjunction when it is fol- 
lowed by and ; as, " I both 12 saw and admired the men."* 

Both is an adjective when it can be joined to a noun ; 
as, '-both 1 boys seem happy." Did you both* see and 
admire the man ? "I did both 1 (i. e., both things). 

(Both can never be construed as a conjunction.) 

Also is a conjunction when used as a connective ; as, 
"you are well; # so am I also 16 ;" i. e., you are well; also 1 * 
I am well." 

But it is better, in all cases, to construe also as an ad- 
verb ; as, "He came also 12 " etc. 

And is a conjunction when used to connect words or 
sentences ; as, " John and 15 James are happy ;" " a white 
and 15 red cow." 

And is an adverb when it qualifies a verb (in which 
case it usually heads a paragraph) ; as, " And 12 it came 
to pass" (i. e., now 12 it came to pass.) 

Either is a corresponding conjunction when followed 
by or ; as, "Either 1 * you or I shall stay.f 

Either is an adjective when it holds a relation to a 
noun; as, "Take either 1 book." 

Either is an adverb when qualifying a verb.f 

Neither is a corresponding conjunction when it pre- 
cedes nor ; as, " Neither 1 * you nor I can remain." f 

Neither is an adjective when joined to a noun ; as, 
" Neither 1 boy could say his lesson." 

Yet is a conjunction when it serves to connect sen- 
tences ; as, " He may be innocent, yet 1 * shall he be tried." 

Yet is an adverb when it qualifies a verb; as, "We 
shall see him yet 12 " 

Nevertheless, notwithstanding, besides, moreover, 
albeit, else, likewise, otherwise, therefore, where- 
FORE, although, are usually adverbs. 

Then is a conjunction when used to connect ; as, " If 
he commands, then 1 * will I obey." 

* Both, when used as a corresponding conjunction, may be con- 
strued either as an adjective or adverb. In this sentence it may be 
called an adverb, qualifying saw and admired; i. e., also admired, 
t See page 139. 



1-12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Then is an adverb when it modifies a verb ; as, " He 
will return then} 2 " 

Than is a conjunction when used to connect ; as, " He 
is wiser than 13 1 (am). 

Than is a preposition when it governs a pronoun in 
the objective ; as, " He was a man, than 14 whom no wiser 
has written."* 

Than seems sometimes to hold the relation of a rela- 
tive pronoun; as, " My punishment is greater s than Q I 
can bear."f 

What is a relative pronoun when used to ask a ques- 
tion; as, " 8 What 6 do you say?" 

What is a compound relative pronoun when it repre- 
sents " that which," or " the thing which ;" as, " s What 6 - 6 
thou bidst unargued, I obey." 

What is an interjection when it has no relation to any 
other word ; as, " What ! 17 can you do it ? " 

What is an adjective when joined to a noun; as, 
" What 1 questions did he ask you?" * 

[In all the above cases what may be construed as an 
adjective ; thus : 

1st. What (words) do you say? 
2d. What (commands) thou bidst, etc. 
3d. What (words you say!) can you, etc. 
4th. What questions. 
Nor is what ever used in such a manner that it can not 
be construed as an adjective."] 

For is a conjunction when it signifies because; as, 
"He believed, for 16 he perceived the truth." 

For is a preposition when used as such ; as, " There 
is a home for 14 all (persons).' 1 

Much and such are adjectives, though often used 

* Thau should never be used as a preposition, except in sentences 
of this construction: in all other cases, than must be used as a con- 
junction ; as, " he is wiser than I " (not me) ; " I am older than he " 
(not him), etc. 

t Since bear is a transitive verb, it must have an object ; and as 
punishment is the nominative to is, it can not be made in the accusative 
after bear: hence it seems that than is a relative pronoun, relating to 
punishment, and in the accusative, governed by bear. 






INTERJECTION. 143 

without a noun ; as, " We give much 1 for charity ; " t. <?., 
much money. 

Much is sometimes used* as an auxiliary adjective; as, 
" He is much 1 older than I." 

More and most are used like much and such. 

When and if seem sometimes to be used in cases of 
similar construction ; as : 

.. f When he comes I shall receive my money. 
\ If he comes I shall receive my money. 

o J I shall receive my money when lQ he comes. 
' \ I shall receive my money if 1B he comes. 

If the word if is a conjunction, why is not when also? 
" Words having the same syntax or relation should have 
the same etymology ;" for which reason we should think 
when as much a conjunction as any other word used«*to 
connect sentences. 

But if when is an adverb, qualifying comes, rendering 
that verb in a manner contingent, why is not if an ad- 
verb also? What is the distinction between the two 
words beyond their etymological signification? 



OF THE INTERJECTIONS. 

Ant interjection is a word that holds no rela- 
tion to any other word, and is used as an ejacula- 
tion to express some emotion of grief, joy, sorrow, 
pain, etc. ; as, O ! alas ! 

The Interjection expresses, in a single word, the 
sense of an entire sentence. It derives its name from 
the two Latin words inter (between), and jacio (to cast), 
signifying that it is a word u cast between" other words 
or sentences in a detached manner, holding no relation 
to them. But if we translate the interjection into intel- 
ligible language, we shall be able to give to each word 



What is an interjection? What does it express? From what is it 
derived ? Can we translate the interjections into more intelligible Lan- 
guage? 






144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

its syntax or relation just as we would in any other sen- 
tence. Take, for instance, the word adieu. Its deriva- 
tion is French, a Dieu, signifying "to God;" i. e., "I 
commend you to the care of God," is the complete sen- 
tence translated into intelligible English. Alas, from 
the Persian ha.laka, perdition, destruction, if translated, 
might mean something like " I perish," " I am lost," etc., 
etc. The interjection 0, may be made to mean any thing 
the speaker desires. It may express fear, joy, sorrow or 
pain ; and, what is also remarkable, it is a word intelli- 
gible to almost all nations, and common to all languages. 

Many interjections may be construed with some other 
word understood ; as, " strange ! " in which case the rest 
of the sentence may be supplied ; it is strange. " Well ! " 
i. e., it is well, or you say well. . u Away ! " i. e., go away. 
"Welcome!" i. e., thou art welcome, etc. 

Many words used as interjections are mere verbs in 
the imperative mood; as, hark! hist! hush! list! lo ! 
behold ! hail ! etc. 

The following is a list of the principal interjections, 
with their translation : 

O ! CI am hurt. I am pained. 
Oh ! } I am glad. I am astonished. 
Ah ! ^1 am surprised. I am delighted, etc. 
, Alas ! I perish. 
Halloo ! ho ! I call you. 
Fudge ! pshaw ! That is nonsense. 
Fy ! for shame ! It is for a shame. 
Pish ! tush ! I am disgusted. 

Language is full of these little ejaculatory expressions; and each 
has its appropriate translation or signification. Inasmuch as some of 
them may be used to express various emotions, the signification miut 
depend on the words that follow. If a person were to exclaim 0! v 3 
should at once ask him the cause (i. e., the meaning) of such ejacula- 
tion, particularly if the interjection- were not accompanied by any 
other word or expression ; and his reply would be the appropriate 
translation of the interjection used. 

Translate adieu and alas. What is said of 0? May interjections 
be construed with some word understood? What are some interjec- 
tions ? Give the list, with their translation. 



SYNTAX. 



Syntax, from the Greek &v and n0^c, to put together, 
treats of the relation* of words in a sentence. There 
are, generally speaking, three kinds of relations : — 

1st. The relation which every subject must have to its 
predicate; as, John 2 walks. 

2d. The relation which every predicate has to its sub- 
ject; as, " John walks] 9 "John shot 10 a bird;" "a bird 
teas shot. 11 " 

3d. The relation which all other words and phrases as 
complements hold to the subject or predicate. 

The complements of the subject have the 1st, 8th or 
13th relation. The complements of the predicate have 
the 12th, 14th and 16th relation. ■ 

Words, based on the 3d, 4th and 17th relation, are in- 
dependent. 

A sentence is formed by the correlative f relation of 
the subject and predicate. 

A RULE OF SYNTAX 

Is a law for the proper union of subjects, predicates and 
complements. 

* Relation, from the Latin re, again, and latum, the supine of fero, 
to bring, signifies a bringing together again; so that the word Syntax and 
Relation mean one and the same thing. 

t Terms are said to be correlative when they mutually depend on 
each other; as, husband and wife; father and son. The relation be- 
tween the nominative and verb is correlative ; for no predicate can 
exist without a subject; and, vice versa, no subject can exist, as a sub- 
ject, unless connected with some predicate. This correlative relation 
exists only between the nominative and verb, while all other words 
have but a simple relation as complements (words of the 3d, 4th and 
17th relation excepted). A subject may exist without a complement, 
but a complement or attribute can have no existence whatever independ- 
ent of a subject or predicate to which it is attached, and on which 
it depends. 

13 ( 145 ) 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

True Syntax is the true relation of words, in accord- 
ance with the table on page 28 ; and a conformity to the 
rules of syntax; as, "John walks in the field." True 
syntax: John 2 walks. 9 

False Syntax is the union of words which have no 
relation to each other; or a nonconformity to the rules 
of syntax, in the following pages ; as, walks field (false 
syntax). 

Rule 1. — Every adjective belongs to a noun or 
pronoun ; as, a good boy ; a large bogk. . 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

[Supply the nouns to which the following adjectives belong^ 
The good* are truly happy. It is not the rich that are 
always prosperous. The wise, the generous, the noble, the 
good and true do not strive for vain distinction. Let 
each of you endeavor to learn. The more you give the 
more he wants. He did not say much. Much as man 
desires, a little will answer. 

Observation 1. The adjectives this, that, each, every, 
either, etc., agree with singular nouns, verbs and pro- 
nouns; these, those, many, all, etc., with plural nouns, 
verbs and pronouns. 

Examples. These kind of indulgences injure the mind. 
I have not seen him this ten years. How manyf a sorrow 
should we avoid if we were always to live virtuous and 
temperate lives. I saw one or more persons J enter the 
house. He would not exercise economy, and by these 
means% he became poor. He had abundance of capital, 
joined with sterling integrity and business tact ; and by 
this means§ he grew rich. Every one of the letters bear date 



* There is no serious objection to calling these words nouns. 

t " How many sorrows." The above is a common expression. It is 
admissible only in poetry ; as, " Many a time.' 7 " Many a furrow in 
my grief-worn cheek," etc. 

% " One person or more" We may say " two or more persons" etc. 

§ When the word means refers to a single thing, or act, it should be 
singular, " this means ;" when it refers to two or more circumstances, 
it should be plural, " these means." Mean is never used as a noun, but 
often as an adjective. 






i 



SYNTAX. 147 

3f his banishment. Neither of those men seem to have 
any idea that their opinions are ill-founded. Are either 
of these men your, friend? By discussing what relates 
to each particular in their order, we shall better under- 
stand the subject, l^adab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, 
took either* of them his censor. Industry is the mean of 
obtaining competency. This is the meansf between two 
extremes. 

Obs. 2. This and these refer to things near or present ; 
that and those to things distant, absent or removed. This 
refers to the latter noun ; that to the former. 

Ex. Vice and virtue are directly opposed to each 
other ; that elevates us ; this degrades. Honesty and 
deceit can not dwell together ; that renders a man con- 
temptible, this makes his existence a blessing to himself 
as well as others. We are having beautiful weather now 
in those days. Washington and Napoleon were generals 
of the highest renown ; thist was illustrious for his in- 
nate goodness of heart, that% for the brilliancy of his 
military exploits. 

Obs. 3. Adverbs are sometimes improperly used for 
adjectives; as, " his hands feel coldly" instead of " his 
hands feel cold, 7 ' etc. 

Ex. How delightfully the country appears.^ How si- 
lently they are! She always appears § neatly. Charles 
has grown greatly by his wisdom. They now appear § 
happily. That behavior was not suitably to his station. 
The rose smells § sweetly. The clouds lookg darkly. How 
bitterly the plums tasted. § 

Obs. 4. Auxiliary adjectives generally require the ter- 
mination ly ; as, he is tolerably well, and not tolerable- 
well]] 

* Every and either should not be used for each. It is quite correct to 
say, " every six years ;" L e., " every period of six years. 11 

t That is, the mean difference; mean, an adjective. 

% This and that should not be applied to persons. Say the former and 
the latter. 

§ Any verb that can be changed to is, or any part of the verb to be, 
requires the adjective and not the adverb. 

|| The termination ly is not always required, as we say, " There was 
no stronger proof." " It is a very probable case." " He was the more 
sensible of the fact," etc., etc. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex. He was exceeding* careful not to give offense. 
She was exceeding* upright in her dealings. They are 
miserable poor. He was extreme prodigal, and his pro- 
perty is now near exhausted. They were admirable 
adapted to the task. Suchf distinguished virtues seldom 
occur. Suchf an amiable disposition is universally ad- 
mired. 

Obs. 5. The use of double comparatives or superla- 
tives is highly improper ; as, " Yours is a more better 
book than his ; but mine is the most best," should be 
" Yours is a better, etc., but mine is the best." 

Ex. She was the most beautifulest woman I ever saw. 
James is a worser scholar than John. He was the 
chief est I among ten thousand. A more serener temper I 
never knew. After the most strictest sect, I lived a 
Pharisee. The tongue is like a race-horse, that runs 
the faster the lesser X weight it carries. 

Obs. 6. The comparative degree, and the adjective 
other require than after them. 

Ex. He has little more of the scholar besides the name. 
They had no sooner risen but they applied themselves to 
their studies. He is no better nor I. He is wiser nor 
me.§ This is none other but the gate of paradise. To 
trust in him is no more but to acknowledge his power. 
James is the wisest\\ of the two. He is the iceakest\\ of 

• " Exceedingly careful. 1 ' Nevertheless exceeding is often used with- 
out the adverbial termination ; as, " he went up into an exceeding^ high 
mountain." The termination is especially suppressed when the adjec- 
tive ends in ly ; as, "Her appearance was exceeding lovely," etc. 

t " So distinguished ;" " so amiable a disposition," etc. Neverthe- 
less, such may not be considered very inapcurate. Very good writers 
use it in similar constructions. 

J Words which convey a superlative idea in themselves, do not 
admit of comparison ; nevertheless the word lesser is often used ; as 
'the Lesser Asia,' 'Lesser lights,' etc. 

§ But is frequently used after other, and, indeed, in some cases, it 
would sound exceedingly stiff to use than. "I know no other man in 
all this town but (than) you." "There is no other business but (than) 
this in which I would succeed." " I could not see any other person 
but (than) him," etc., (not he.) 

|| When two objects are compared the comparative is generally used \\ 
and when more than two, the superlative. Many respectable writers, 
however, use the superlative in comparing two objects; as "He was 
the youngest of the two," etc. 






SYNTAX. 149 

the two. He is the likeliest* of any other to succeed. 
This is the bestf way and the most likely to bring our 
journey to speedy issue. Napoleon and Wellington were 
great generals, but, in my opinion, Washington was the 
greatest.^ 

Obs. 7. The natural position of the adjective in 
English is before the noun, although the contrary is 
the case in nearly all other languages: nevertheless the 
adjective is often placed after the noun to which it be- 
longs, particularly when it is emphatical, when several 
adjectives follow in succession, or when the verb to be 
intervenes between the noun and adjective. In some 
cases adjectives should not be separated from the nouns 
to which they belong, particularly when the adjective, 
thus separated, would come before a noun which it does 
not qualify. A due regard to the successive position of 
adjectives should also be observed. 

Ex. Thomas has bought a new pair of- shoes X a new 
pair of gloves, and & fine dozen of collars. This is a ne*w 
gentleman's hat.% I have found <an old girl's gaiter. 
Have you read the long president's message? He has 
for sale an extensive gentleman's plantation. He is the 
servant of an old rich man.% She is a young beautiful 
woman. 

Rule II. The Nominative case is the subject 
of the verb ; as, / am ; John is. 

EXERCISE ^Ok CORRECTION. 

Him and I will go together. Them are the same 
persons. Whom, among all the people, will make the 

*The comparative is very often elegantly used in comparing more 
than two objects, particularly when the "Comparison is instituted 
between different classes ; or when we have a doubt as to the exist- 
ence of a superlative. 

t Not the best of all ways ; but better than any known, and more 
likely, etc. Washington was greater than these, but perhaps not the 
greatest man that ever lived, 

X A pair of new shoes, A gentleman's new hat, etc. 

? A rich old man. A beautiful young woman, etc. When an 
adjective forms, as it were, part of the noun, it must not be separated 
from it 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sacrifice? Her and Susan are good girls. The general 
and him barely escaped. 

Obs. 1. The nominative case is often placed after the 
verb, when the sense is not thereby obscured; but in 
parsing it is necessary to construe it before the verb, 
according to Rule I. 

Ex. There was him and one or two others present. 
There goes him and his sister. The great end of life is 
happiness, (correct — construe). 

Obs. 2. The various inflections of the verb to be, and 
some other intransitive verbs, admit a nominative or 
accusative after them when in apposition with a nomi- 
native before them ; as, < he is a scholar. 1 l I took that 
person to be him. 1 

Ex. It is only me. It was him that did it. He resem- 
bles his brother so much that I took it to be he* I saw 
a lady whom I took to be she.* Let him be whom he 
inay. Who* do you think him to be? Whom do they 
say they are? It was them\ indeed. 

Obs. 3. If the verb to be is understood, it does not 
change the general rule ; as, in fact, all nouns in appo- 
sition (or meaning the same thing or person) must be in 
the same case. 

Ex. They appointed / leader. Him shall remain 
governor of the Provinces. Her lived a Christian. Hun 
died a beggar. 

Eule III. — All nouns of the second person are 
in the independent case ; as, 0, John ! Ah ! thou 
excellent man ! 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
O, thee, slaves ! Ah, thee, deceiver I 
Obs. 1. All nouns in the independent case are of the 
second person, and all pronouns, except the first singu- 

* He should be him, the accusative in apposition with it which is 
accusative after took. She and who follow the same rule. 
t Them should be they, nom. after the impers. verb is. 



SYNTAX. 151 

lar, which takes the objective or accusative form j as, 
"Ah! me!" 

Ex. O , they, miserable beings ! Alas ! them, pitiful 
creatures ! Ah I! O, th.ee scoundrel ! What ! thee 
indeed! 

Obs. 2. The third person seems sometimes to be used 
as an independent; as, "Alas! those miserable beings! 
Alas ! what cruel tortures! Ah ! those cruel fiends ! 

Rule IV. — The absolute case precedes a parti- 
ciple ; as, " the general being killed, victory was 
lost." 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Solomon made as wise and true proverbs as any other, 
him only excepted who was much greater and wiser than 
he. The winoV's rising, and him being lost, w T e resolved 
to return. The trunk was heavy, and its being over- 
turned, the contents rolled out. Their going home, he 
'was detained. 

Obs. 1. When the noun or pronoun is the accusative 
of a verb, it can not be made in the absolute ; as, " him, 
rising, they struck." 

Ex. And this man, who, being my uncle, I have re- 
vered, reviles me. He, liberated, they drew in a chariot 
through all the streets. He, being known, they resolved 
to persecute. (It is better, in such cases as this, to add 
him, and make he abs. before being, etc.) 

Rule V. — The possessive case possesses a noun ; 
as, John's book. 

examples for correction. 

This is Pompeys pillar. Such is virtues reward. A 
mans manner's frequently influence his fortune's. I will 
not destroy the city for ten sake. Asa his heart was per- 
fect with the Lord. 

Obs. 1. When several nouns in the possessive come 
together, the apostrophe and s are annexed to the last, 
and omitted in the rest. 

Ex. Peter's, John's and Andrew's occupation was that 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of fishermen. It was the men's, women's and children's 
lot to suffer. This is John's, Jame's and Williams house. 

Obs. 2. When any words intervene, or when the noun 
to which the possessive holds h relation comes before it, 
the possessive sign should be annexed to each. 

Ex. This gained the king, as well as the people's admi- 
ration. Is this book John or Eliza's? He asked his 
father, as well as his mother's advice. 

Obs. 3. The possessive of pronouns is used without 
the apostrophe. 

Ex. Every tree is known by it's fruit. Whos'e house 
is thi^? Is this book her's or his' f It is their' s\ Is this 
house our's? 

Obs. 4. To prevent too much of the hissing sound, the 
s, after the apostrophe, is usually omitted in nouns already 
ending in s. 

Ex. Righteousness' s sake. For -conscience's sake, ikfo- 
seses' rod was turned into a serpent. For Uerodias's 
sake, his brother Philips's wife. 

Obs. 5. In many instances it is far more elegant to use 
of instead of the possessive ; as, " the wisdom of Soc- 
rates" for " Socrates' wisdom :" "the reward of virtue" 
for "virtue's reward." It seems better to say, "She 
married the brother of my son's wife," than " She mar- 
ried my son's wife's brother. The successive use of u of" 
is often unpleasant ; as, " The distress of the son of the 
king touched the nation. It would be better to say, 
"The distress of the king's son," etc. 

Ex. The world's government is not left to chance. 
This is my wife's brother's partner's house. It was 
necessary to have both the physician's and surgeon's 
advice. The extent of the prerogative of the king of 
England is sufficiently ascertained. 

Obs. 6. Nouns in apposition should have the same 
case ; as, I bought it at Brown's the cutler's* 

* That is, at Brown's store, the cutler's store. 



SYNTAX. • 153 

Ex. I lived at Wilson's, the farmer. These works are 

Cieeros. the most eloquent of men. 

Ofs. 7. But in many instances, the use of the apos- 
trophe and 6- is inelegant ; as. " These Psalms are David's 
the king, priest and prophet of the Jewish people " is 
better than " David's the king's priest's, etc.'' 

Ex. Give me Joints the Baptist's head. This is the 
emperor's Leopold's palace. This is my brother's John's 
hat. Prince's William's sound.* 

Obs. 8. In some instances, both of and the possessive 
are used; as, "It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's; 
i. e., one of Xewton's discoveries. " A picture of the 
king" means simply a portrait of him ; but "a picture 
of the king's," means a picture of any description be- 
lono*ino' to the kino-. 

Ex. That picture of the king's does not resemble him. 
These pictures of tlffe king were sent from Italy. This 
estate of the corporations is much encumbered. That is 
the eldest son of the king of England's. 

Obs. 9. The possessive case frequently comes before 
'•'participial nouns;" as, "much will depend on the pu- 
pil's composing, but more on his reading. f 

Ex. What can be the cause of the Senate adjourning 
at this time? The time #f Eliza entering the class, at 
length, arrived. Such will ever be the effect of youth 
associating with vicious companions. I think the object 
of the assembly being called was to clear a doubt of the 
king about the lawfulness of the Hollanders throwing off 
the monarchy of Spain, and the withdrawing their alle- 
giance to that crown. 

Rule VI. Transitive verbs govern the accusa- 
tive (or objective) ; as, We love him; he loves us. 

" :| - All such harsh and inelegant sentences may be made smooth and 
elegant by the use of u qf;" or by changing the words as indicated by 
the rules given. 

t When the phrase in which the participle occurs is, in effect, the 
nominative, the noun preceding the participle is in the possessive ; but 
when the noun is absolute, or nominative to some other verb, or the 
accusative after a verb, it can not be put in the possessive. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

He and they we know; but thou we know not. He 
who committed the offense shouldst thou correct, -and 
not i" who am innocent. Ye only have I known. And 
I, who never did him an injury, he would endeavor to 
destroy. Who should I esteem more than the wise and 
virtuous? Who should I see the other day but my old 
friend ! 

Obs. 1. Intransitive verbs do not admit an accusative 
after them. 

Ex. Go ! flee thee away to the land of Judea. Repent 
thyself of thine iniquities. Let him repent him of his 
designs. Lie the book down on the table.* Now I lie 
me down to sleep. I can not agree (reconcile) his conduct 
with his professions. Return you at once. I inquired 
the cause of it. 

Obs. 2. The participle, being a part of the verb, 

governs the accusative. • 

Ex. Esteeming their selves wise, they became fools. 
Having exposed hisself, he took cold. 

Obs. 3. The participial noun may also govern the 
accusative. 

Ex. Upon seeing I he turned and fled. On meeting he, 
I explained the matter. After consulting I, they left 
the house. % 

Obs. 4. When of is used after a participle, the parti- 
ciple is parsed as a noun, and the preposition governs 
the following word. This construction is always indi- 
cated by the word the, or some other adjective, which 
immediately precedes the participle; hence, when the 
precedes the participle, of must follow it, and when the 
is not used, of must be omitted. 

Ex. The storming the castle was no easy task. On 
taking of the cars, we whirled rapidly through the 
country. Nothing could have made her so unhappy as 
the marrying a man who possessed such princijoles. 

*The verb to lie is intransitive, and, as such, can not admit an 
object after it. Lie should be lay, which is transitive, and can govern 
the object, book. 



SYNTAX. 155 

Obs. 5. Transitive verbs should not be used as intran- 
sitive; nor should they admit prepositions between 
them and the accusatives which they govern.* 

Ex. I shall premise with these general observations. 
I will lay here until you return. If all the States would 
unite in prohibiting the issue of notes of a less denomi- 
nation than twenty dollars, much of the viciousness of 
banking would be done away with. " Of this rule there 
are many variations to be met with.^f 

Obs. 6. The accusative is often understood. 

Ex. (Supply the appropriate objects.) The Lord is 
mighty; he can create, and he can destroy. He taught 
last winter. She studies diligently, I understand. 

Rule VII. Prepositions govern the objective 
case ; as ? ' To whom much is given, of him much 
shall be required ;' ' on him and not me J etc. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

To ivho will you give it? He can do nothing ofhisself. 
He laid the suspicion upon somebody in the company, I 
know not who.% They willingly, and of theirselves re- 
solved to return. 

Obs. 1. The preposition should be placed immediately 
before the relative which it governs.§ 

Ex. Who were you speaking off Who did John go 
with? Who do you serve under? WKb % didst thou 
receive that intelligence from ? 

Obs. 2. It is regarded as inelegant to connect two 
prepositions, or a preposition and a transitive verb, with 
the same noun. Thus, u They were refused an entrance 
into, and driven from the house" should be " They were 
refused an entrance into the house, and were driven from 



* Except where the preposition is compounded with the verb; as, 
"Do not give up the ship," etc., etc. 

t Verbatim, from Smith's. Grammar, page 130. 

% This sentence is correct if we supply ' it was' after ' who.' 

§ In familiar conversation the preposition is almost invariably used 
' after the relative \ but as this gives rise to error, it is better to use it 
before the pronoun ; and in writing this rule should always be observed. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

it" " I wrote to and warned him," should be " I wrote 
to him and warned him,." 

Ex. He is quite unacquainted with, and consequently, 
can not speak, upon that subject. He had an altercation 
with, and afterward struck the man. 

Obs. 3. It is also inelegant to close a sentence with a 
preposition, when it is possible to avoid such a construc- 
tion. 

Ex. There was an island which it was difficult to sail 
around. This problem I did not know what to do with. 
His services I no longer had occasion for. 

Rule VIII. — Pronouns must have the gender, 
person, and number of the nouns for which they 
stand ; as, John is a good boy, because he studies 
attentively. Helen is a good girl, because she be- 
haves well. The book is on the table : bring it to 
me. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
Take handfuls of ashes and let Moses sprinkle it to- 
wards heaven, and it shall become small dust. Can any 
person on their entrance into life, be fully secure that 
they shall not be deceived?* Answer not a fool accord- 
ing to their folly. f They .which% seek wisdom shall cer- 
tainly find her. The boat was wrecked, and every man 
and woman endeavored to save themselves. § The wheel 
killed another man, which is the sixth that have lost their 
lives by this means. || 

* " Can any person, on his entrance ;" but as this would exclude en- 
tirely one of the sexes, a better method of expression would be : " Can 
any person on entering life be fully secured against being deceived ?" 

t " According to his (or her) folly." ' \ 

X Which may sometimes relate to persons. 

git is always good policy to avoid the use of sentences which seem 
to involve the necessity of using pronouns that do not agree with their 
antecedents. It would sound peculiarly awkward to say, " Every man 
and woman endeavored to save himself and herself; and, hence, we are 
almost brought to the conclusion that " themselves " is correct. It would 
be better to say, " All the men and women endeavored to save them- 
selves." In this way we correct the sentence by introducing a plural 
antecedent. 

II "That has lost his life," etc. It certainly would be better to say, 
"The wheel killed another man, making six that have lost their lives." 



SYNTAX. 157 

Obs. 1. A pronoun should not be used in a sentence 
when it has no case-relation to any other word; as, 
"The Lord, he is just." We should say, "The Lord 
is just." 

Ex. There are many persons, who, instead of doing- 
good, they are intent on doing mischief. Whoever* en- 
tertains such an opinion, he judges erroneously. He 
that hath ears to hear, let him hear.f You have griev- 
ously offended, and that not only myself, but God. And 
myself i do you not think /have suffered? Mr. D. H. 
Taft, having associated with him Mr. S. P. Green, they 
will continue the business at the old stand. 

Obs. 2. Who relates to persons, which and that to per- 
sons or things, what and as to things only. 

Ex. I am the man what made it. You are the woman 
what I wish to see. You are the very man as I came 
for. This is the child whom I I saw at the gardens. It 
was this faction who § endeavored to subvert the govern- 
ment. And France, who§ formed an alliance with Eng- 
land, espoused the cause of the Turks. He is like a 
beast of prey, who destroys without pity. Having once 
disgusted him, he could never regain the favor of Nero, 
who was but another name for cruelty. || Who^\ of 
these men came to his assistance? Which** among 
you dares approach? 

Obs. 3. As the relative pronoun does not change to 
express distinction of person, number or gender, it 



* Compound relative, equivalent to ' he, who 1 or ' the person ivho; 
. f 'He' is obviously redundant, and yet some word seems to be re- 
quired before that. If we supply some such words as " Whoever he is 
that hath," etc., the word he might with propriety be retained: or we 
may consider the word him a redundancy, in which case we should 
say, "He that hath ears to hear should hear." 

% Which or that is generally applied to children ; nevertheless whom 
may not be deemed a violation of language. 

§ Such words as people, nation, country, faction, clan, company, body, 
parliament, senate, congress, etc., etc., require which or that instead of 
who. 

|| "Whose name was but another word for cruelty . r 

% Which (i. e., which one) of these, etc. 

** " Who, among you," etc. Observe the effect of the prepositions. 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

should be placed next its antecedent, to prevent am- 
biguity. 

Ex. The king dismissed his minister without any in- 
quiry, who had never before committed so unjust an 
action.* The boy beat his companion, whom everybody 
believed incapable of doing mischief, f This man and 
his neighbor quarrelled, who never had been known to 
speak an angry word before. % 

Obs. 4. As the relative pronoun who, and its com- 
pounds whoever and whosoever, are declinable, particular 
attention should be given to their construction in regard 
to case. 

Ex. These are the men whom, as you might suppose, 
were the authors of the work. If you were to go there, 
you would find one, at least, whom, you would say, passed 
his time pleasantly. Whoever % he appoints, I shall re- 
ceive. I shall attack whoever || comes this way. Whom- 
ever || comes this way shall be attacked. Whomsoever he 
is, I shall be pleased.^]" Whomsoever book it is, I shall 
appropriate it. 

Obs. 5. The noun or pronoun that is used in answer 
to a question, must be of the same case as the relative 
pronoun used in asking. 

Ex. Of whom did you get your books ? Of a book- 
seller: he- who keeps on Main street. Who told you 
this? Both him and the clerk. Who** was the money 

* « The king, who had never," etc. ; or if it be the minister who is 
regarded as culpable, then, "his minister, who had never," etc.; and 
" without any inquiry" should follow " king! 1 

t "The boy, whom," etc.; or, if it was his companion that was 
deemed incapable, the sentence is correct as it stands. 

% This is an extremely ambiguous construction: avoid it. 

§ Whomever is seldom used. Webster excludes it entirely from his 
dictionary; nevertheless, it seems consistent to use it here. 

|| When whoever is used as a compound equal to " he who" or "him 
who" it should have the case which its position in the sentence would 
indicate. 

% Whoever and whomsoever are not always resolvable into " he who" 
etc.; as, "Whoever hath eyes to see, let him see." 

** We must first correct the error in the question, by changing the 
nom. ivho to the obj. whom. 



SYNTAX. 159 

paid to? To the teacher and he who lives with him. 
"Who has done this? Not me. Who* did you meet? 
He and his sister. 

Obs. 6. The pronoun should be generally referred to 

its nearest antecedent. 

Ex. I am the man who command you.f I am the per- 
son who adopt this sentiment. He fired the gun twice, 
and having secured two birds, he resolved to carry it to 
the house. J He walked through the fields, and having 
discovered the truant lambs, recrossed them. § 

Obs. 7. In some cases, the pronoun seems to be referred 
to its first antecedent ; as, "I am the man who command 
you :" when such is the case, that agreement must be 
continued through the entire sentence; as, "I am the 
man who command you, who entertain these opinions, 
and who adopt these sentiments. 

Ex. Thou art a friend that hast often relieved me, and 
has not deserted me now. Thou art the man who didst 
revile my sentiments, despised \\ my counsels, mocked my 
words, and have now come to want. I am the person 
who have received thy kind favors, and hast come to re- 
munerate thee. 

Obs. 8. The pronoun you, whether it is used to repre- 
sent a noun in -the singular or plural, always requires 

* We must first correct the error in the question, by changing the 
nom. who to the obj. whom. 

t / is first person ; man is third. Who should be in the third person, 
as man is its nearest antecedent. Now, as there is nothing about who 
to determine the person, we must change the form of the verb, and say 
11 who commands. 11 So, we see it is in reality the verb and not the pro- 
noun that is wrong. 

% Pronouns should also be referred to the nearest word for an ante- 
cedent; or rather should be placed nearest their antecedent in con- 
structing the sentence. It would certainly refer to gun; and if that 
was the object he resolved to carry to the house, we should say: "He 
fired the gun twice, and resolved to carry it to the house, having se- 
cured," etc. Otherwise, we should change it to them. 

§ It would be absurd to refer them to lambs : hence we should say : 
"He walked through the fields, and recrossed them, having discov- 
ered,'' etc. ; or, " He walked through the fields, and having discovered 
the truant lambs, resolved to ret urn. " 

|| "Didst despise:" "didst mock." 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the verb to which it belongs to be plural, (except in 
cases where the verb is preceded by it; in which case it 
must be singular, in the same manner as any impersonal 
verb.) 

Ex. Where was you when the roll was called? John ! 
was you- at the gentleman's house? William! I think 
you told me you was at New York last spring. It were* 
you who assembled to hear me. Were* it not you tliat 
threatened to attack the fortress ? Are * it ye who wor- 
ship fals£ gods ? 

Rule IX. — A verb agrees with its nominative 
case, in number and person ; as, I live, thou lipest, 
he lives ; we live, you live, etc. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
• The frequent commission of crimes harden his heart.f 
A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. There is 
more than ten thousand men advancing upon us. A ju- 
dicious arrangement of our studies facilitate the acquisi- 
tion of knowledge. There's several articles left. There 
was but a few persons present. Every hundred years 
constitute a century. J Every few days bring a recurrence 
of the malady. J Every twenty -four hours afford us the 
vicissitudes of day and night. J The flock, and not the 
fleece, are the objects of the shepherd'* care.§ The meeting 
were well attended.g The people was very numerous.g 

* Impersonal verbs should always be third person, singular. 

t The introduction of a phrase or sentence between the nominative 
and the verb frequently induces this error. 

J The word period understood is the real nominative to these verbs. 
The rule which some grammarians give that "plural nouns after every 
require a singular verb," is a libel upon language. These plural nouns 
are governed by the preposition of understood. 

§ All nouns, whether "of multitude 7 ' or otherwise, that have both a 
singular and plural form, follow the general rule, and require verbs to 
agree with them in person and number. The word flock is singular 
number, and hence requires a singular verb. The plural of flock is 
flocks. The plural of meeting^ meetings ; but the word people has but 
one form, being plural in idea : hence all nouns of multitude that have 
but one form, must be regarded as plural nouns, and, as such, require 
a plural verb. In fact, these nouns (people, public, etc.) are plural as 
much as the words tongs, scissors, arms, etc.; and instead of regarding 
them as nouns in the singular, having no plural form, the contrary is 



SYNTAX. 161 

When the nation complain, the rulers should listen to 
their voice. The regiment consist of a thousand men. 
The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their chief good.* 

I believe the government^ have a right to do this. Man 
are an accountable being.% The following set of exer- 
cises are arranged on a new plan.§ A part only of the 
individuals are meant. || The crowd were great. The 

the truth. There are but a few words belonging to this class that 
require a plural verb. Grammarians do not seem to have explainel 
the nature of these words. When the student has been told that nouns 
of multitude, expressing unity of idea, require a singular verb, and 
nouns expressing plurality of idea require a verb in the plural, he has 
a confused idea of the true intention of the rule, but yet is unable to 
tell when plurality or unity is expressed. For instance, he learns that 
nation is a noun of unity, but council is one expressing plurality ! As- 
tonishing perception that could make so minute a distinction ! The 
fact is, both of these words are in the singular, the plural being 
nations and councils. The rule, as generally laid down, is no guide in 
distinguishing the singular from the plural form. 

* Multitude is in the singular; plural, multitudes. We say the 
multitude is ; and the multitudes are. If multitude is a plural noun, re- 
quiring a plural verb and pronoun to agree with it, it will also require 
a plural adjective: hence we should say "these multitude;" "those 
multitude; 1 ' " several multitude ;" "many multitude, 5 - etc., instead of 

II this multitude;" " that multitude," etc. The absurdity of calling 
multitude a plural noun must be apparent to any person of ordinary 
comprehension. 

t Government is in the singular. It is right to say the government 
is, and governments are. 

% Let us inquire of any respectable grammarian if the word man 
here does not express plurality of idea ? Does it not include all man- 
kind? Is there a single human being that is excepted? Certainly 
not. If it is plural in idea, why not have a pluraj verb ? It is simply 
because the word man has a plural form, i. e., men. We say, " Man is 
an accountable being ; but "Men are" etc. Do we say "The bee are an 
industrious insect, 1 ' or "the bee is" etc.? Any noun, taken without 
an adjective, is used in its broadest extension, and is, in every sense 
of the word, a noun of multitude, being used to indicate a whole class ; 
as, man, beast, bird, etc. 

§ Copied verbatim from Lennie's grammar; page 53. The plural 
of set is sets. See dictionary. 

|| This highly elegant sentence is from Smith's grammar, being part of 
a rule which teaches the monstrous falsehood that " A verb in the plu- 
ral will agree with a collective noun in the singular when a part only 
of the individuals are meant," adding as *example, "The council were 
divided in their sentiments;" as if, not being satisfied with the error 
in the rule, he would add one still more preposterous by way of ex- 
ample. It should be, " The council was divided in sentiment." The 
plural of council is councils. The plural of part is parts. We can not 
join a plural adjective to council or part. 
14 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

parliament are dissolved. The army are destroyed. The 
parliaments of different nations makes laws. The armies 
of Napoleon was victorious. The multitude are clamor- 
ous for liberty. The multitudes is eager for the fray.* 
The committee were divided in their sentiment. The com- 
mittee was agreed in its sentiments. f The public is jealous 
of its rights. The Republic stand on a firm basis. These 
Republics is built on the principle of self-government. t 
Congress^ are composed of the representatives of the 
people. The country are filled with fanatics. The flock 
of birds fly past the door. The flocks of sheep grazes on 
the hills. The herd of cattle are heard bellowing loudly. 
A large drove of cattle are coming to market. A great 
collection of men are in the street. The crowd press for- 
ward. The crowds is as numerous as the sands on the 
seashore. 

Obs. 1. The impersonal verb " it is " and " it was" may 
be followed by nouns or pronouns in the plural ; as, " It 
was they who did it;" " it was the heretics who first began 
to rail," etc. They may also be followed by pronouns 
of the first person ; as, " It is I who told him ;" it is we 
that have come," etc. 

Ex. It were the soldiers that made the noise. It am I. 
It are they. It is strange, the (how) few letters I now 
receive (i. e., how few are the letters which, etc.). It were 
these arguments that decided the question. 

• Rule X. — The Infinitive Mood is governed by 
the preceding word in construction. It is desig- 
nated by the word to, w r hich precedes it, either ex- 

* If it is correct, as many grammarians allege, to say, " the multi- 
tude are clamorous," then is it equally correct to say, " the multitudes 
is" etc. 

t The sentence is perfectly correct according to the rule usually 
given ; for if committee in the singular is made to agree with were in 
the plural, then may we # violate the rule with equal propriety when 
the nominative is plural. 

% The word public is in the plural, and has no singular form; but its 
compound Republic may be used in the plural. 

\ Congress is not, strictly speaking, a noun of multitude. It simply 
means the "coming together" of persons; and, as such, is a noun in 
the singular, having no plural form. 






SYNTAX. 163 

pressed or implied. The verbs, bid, dare, need, 
see, make, hear, feel, let, observe, 'perceive, and behold, 
usually require the infinitive to be used without 
the sign fo.* 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Permit me examine the book. I shall endeavor learn. 
Consider if you are able overcome the difficulty. He 
can not be said have accomplished the feat unaided. 

I dare not to proceed so hastily. Bid the man to ap- 
proach. I need not to converse with him. He has gone 
out to see the sun to rise. Make me to know thy laws.f 
He made the boat to cross the^stream.J Do you not hear 
him to call? I felt the wind to blow upon my cheek. I 
felt ashamed think I had done so.§ Did you observe the 
man to raise up his hands ?|| 

I perceived the clouds to rise, and the waves to dash 
violently about. We beheld him to mount aloft. He was 
seen cross the stream.^ He has been heard utter such 
words.^| Men of research have denied, or at least 
doubted them to be genuine.** 

Obs. 1. The infinitive is often used without a govern- 
ing word in a sentence; but in parsing, some suitable 
word must be supplied. 

Ex. To confess the truth I was at fault.f f To begin : 
I will relate what befell my friend. f f To acknowledge 
the fact, it was as the gentleman says. 



* To is used after the passive of all these verbs except let. 

t To is admissible sometimes after make. This sentence may not be 
regarded, therefore, as incorrect. 

% " He made the boat cross the stream " would mean, he forced it 
across; but, "he made the boat to cross," etc., would indicate that he 
constructed a boat for the purpose of crossing the stream. In the for- 
mer case, to cross would be governed by "made" in the latter, by boat, 
or "with which" understood after the word boat — "the boat, with 
which" etc. 

§Here to is required, because to think does not hold a relation to felt, 
but to the adjective, ashamed — ashamed to think. 

|| It must be confessed that to does not appear improper here. 

<f To is required here, because the verbs are passive. 

** It should be, " have denied them to be genuine, or doubted if they were 
so ;" because doubted is intransitive, and can not govern them. 

tf Supply " If I am" or some similar words. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 2. In many cases the infinitive is used as a nom- 
inative to a verb, in which case the verb must be singu- 
lar where one infinitive is used, or where two are used 3 
connected by or or nor ; and plural where two infinitives 
are used, connected by and. 

Ex. To will are present with me, but to perform that 
which are good, I find not. To be deprived of his pres- 
ence, or to be denied his wise counsels are trials almost 
insuperable. To exhibit a cheerful temper, and to be 
guarded in our expressions is our highest aim. To de- 
termine the true signification of these various words, to 
classify and arrange them was a work of no inconsiderable 
magnitude.* 

Obs. 3. It is highly improper to introduce an adverb, 
an adverbial phrase, or any other words between to and 
the infinitive verb. It is also improper to use for before 
to.f 

Ex. It was thought better to first open the box. He 
determined to henceforth leave the intoxicating cup. 
Arrange the box so as to partially exclude the light. He 
was so assiduous as to, in a measure, injure his health. 
He intended for to cross the river. "What went you out 
for to see ? For to plow, for to sow, for to reap, and 
to mow, for to t>e a farmer's boy. He set out for to ex- 
plore the country. 

Obs. 4. After the imperfect tense of a verb we should 
generally use the infinitive present instead of the infini- 
tive perfect.^ 

Ex. He was seen to have entered the house. He always 
intended to have reproved his son. We have done no 
more than it was our duty to have done. He rejoiced to 
have found once more his old companion. 



* This sentence may be considered correct as it stands, according 
to the 4th observation under Rule XVII. 

|The use of for before the infinitive seems to have been introduced 
from the French, in which language it is both correct and elegant. 
It is a common fault to separate to from the infinitive by an adverb. 

% Because the action represented by the Infinitive Mood was present 
««it the time represented by the imperfect tense. % 



SYNTAX. 165 

Obs. 5. The infinitive perfect should be used after the 
present tense, when a past action is referred to ; and 
after the imperfect of ought, to be, and some other verbs, 
when the past tense is peculiarly indicated. 

Ex. The man ought to know better.* He thinks the 
English ought to spare* the life of the Maid of Orleans. 
The man was supposed to escape before the sheriff reached 
•the place. He is known to spend the greater part of his 
fortune. He seems to know that this was the case, and 
to act in accordance with such knowledge at that time. 
I was to meet him there. f It would have afforded me 
great pleasure to be the bearer of such intelligence. 
From the conversation I had with him, he appeared to 
study the classics a long time. 

Rule XI. — When two negatives occur in the 
same sentence, they neutralize each other, and 
produce an affirmation ; as, " I am not unmindful 
of death." J Hence, when it is desired to express 
a negation, we should use but a single negative. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

I can not drink no more. He can not do nothing. 
He will never be no better. Covet neither riches nor 
honors, nor no such perishing things. Do not interrupt 
me yourself, nor let no one disturb me. I have resolved 
not to comply with the proposal ; neither at present, nor 
at any other time.§ I can not, by no means, allow this 
to be the fact. Nor is danger to be apprehended, no 



* This construction would indicate the present tense; but if the 
past is meant, the infin. per/, should be used It is by the infinitive 
only that the tense of ought can be determined. — See page 129. 

t This may be regarded as correct, according to Obs. 4, ante. 

X An affirmation is elegantly expressed by the use of two negatives, 
when a former negation is denied; as, "I did not discontinue the use 
of it," etc. 

§ "I have resolved neither to comply at present, nor at," etc. The 
above form of expression is admissible in speaking, when it appears 
that it is the first intention of the speaker to pause at the word ''pro- 
posal," and adds the rest as a second thought. Thus, "I will have 
nothing to do with you. Neither at present, nor at any future time." 
Avoid it in writing. 






166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

more than under the ordinary casualties of existence. 
I could not, although I listened attentively, neither com- 
prehend his words nor actions. I can not never do noth- 
ing with the child.* I could n't never understand no 
more about it. 

Kule XII. — Adverbs qualify verbs; and should 
generally follow them ; as, the bird flies swiftly, f 

EXAMPLES EOR CORRECTION. 

He unaffectedly and forcibly spoke, and was attentively 
listened to by the whole assembly. Wot only he found 
her employed, but sweetly she was singing also. In the 
disposition of adverbs, the ear carefully requires to be 
consulted as well as the sense. 

Obs. 1. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs : ad- 
jectives qualify nouns; adverbs qualify verbs. 

[Adverbs that are formed from adjectives generally terminate in ly. 
By poetical license, this termination is often omitted, but should be 
supplied in parsing. The ly is elegantly omitted when an auxiliary 
ending in ly precedes; as, "he speaks extremely loud."'] 

Ex. She reads proper, writes very neat, and composes 
accurate. He speaks very fluent, reads excellent, but does 
not think very coherent. He acted bolder % than was ex- 
pected. They behaved the noblest,^ because they were 
disinterested. He spoke truer J than the other. 

Obs. 2. Adverbs are often used as nouns; § as, "Since 
then the constitution has not been changed. In a little 
while I shall return. The line extends from there to here. 
From should not be used before hence, thence and whence, 
as it is implied. 

* Triple negatives are absurd. 

t Many adverbs require to be placed before the verb, as never, whci<* 
ever, alivays, etc., when emphatic. Use discretion about the position 
of the adverb. We may say, "The women voluntarily contributed 
their rings ;" or, " The women contributed, voluntarily, all their 
rings;" or, again, "The women contributed all their rings volun- 
tarily." Either may be considered correct. 

J More boldly ; most nobly and truly. 

§ It must be confessed that this use of the adverb is contrary to 
analogy, and is not a very elegant method of expression. It is better 
to avoid it in all cases. 



SYNTAX. 167 

Ex. From whence do you come? From thence he re- 
traced his steps. From hence I go, never again to re- 
turn. Where are you going to?*- I intended to go 
there * this morning. Come here* Charles, immediately. 
The place where I found him.f 

Obs. 3. Adjectives should not be used in the place of 
auxiliary adverbs, which should terminate in ly ; as, ex- 
tremely well done ; not extreme well, etc. 

Ex. The operation was exceeding well performed. She 
sings real well. He converses exceedingly fluently. % He 
talks astonishing rapidly, § — and his voice sinks imper- 
ceptible lowly. She dresses exceeding neatly. § 

Rule XIII. — Care must be taken to express the 
proper time by the appropriate tense. || 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
I have compassion on the multitude, because they con- 
tinued with me now these three day$. And he that was^\ 
dead sat up and began to speak. Next New Year's day 
I shall be at school three years. Ye will not come unto 
me that ye might have eternal life. His sickness was so 
great that I feared he would have died** before our arrival. 
It would, have given me great satisfaction to relieve^ him 
from that distressed situation. 

Obs. 1. The present tense should be generally used 

* The use of ivhere, there and here for whither, thither and hither, is 
not strictly proper. The signification of where is in or at what place ; 
of there, in or at that place; of here, in or at this place ; while the signi- 
fication of whither is to what place; of thither, to that place; and of 
hither, to this place; hence, after verbs of motion, whither, hither and 
thither should be used : nevertheless, we may use where, here and there 
after verbs of motion, if" we assign to them a signification similar to 
that assigned to whither, etc. Custom sanctions this use of here, where 3 
etc. — See Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. 

t Better to say, "The place in which I found him." 
% Exceeding does not take ly when the adverb has it. 
| Better to change the ly from the adverb to the auxiliary, and say, 
astonishingly rapid, imperceptibly low, etc. This sounds more agreeable 
to the ear, and has the sanction of usage. It is not necessary that 
adverbs, derived from adjectives, should always terminate in ly. Low 
is an adverb; but lowly is an adjective. 

|| See moods and tenses, page 116. % "That had been dead." 
** " That he would die." tt See Rule X, Obs. 5. 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

after the imperfect or perfect, when the action is repre- 
sented as present at the time, expressed by the imperfect or 
perfect. 

Ex. The apostle knew that the present was the only 
time allowed for this preparation. It could not have 
been otherwise known that the word had this meaning. 
I told him if he went* to-morrow I should go with him. 
He said if he collected* the money in a few days he 
would pay the debt. The orations of Cicero and De- 
mosthenes have been f brilliant productions ; and were. 
the admiration of every age.f 

Rule XIV. — Care should be taken to express 
the proper relation and idea, with the appropriate 
preposition. § 

The words accused, boast, independent, need, observance, 
worthy, tired, etc., generally require to be followed by 

Adapted, agreeable, adverse, conformable, reconcile, op- 
posed, opposite, in regard, exception, .resemblance, etc., 
should be followed by " to." 

Bestow, call, dependent, insist, wait, think, etc., require 
" on" or " upon " after them. 

Compliance, consonant, associate, provide, to fall in, dis- 
gust, plead, etc., require " with." 

Call, wait, change, taste, etc., generally have "for." 

Derogation, differ, dissent, freed, swerve, etc., usually re- 
quire " from." 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
He was totally dependent of the papal crown. He 
accused the minister for betraying the Dutch. You will 

* Here we can neither use the present nor future ; but rather the 
imperfect potential, inasmuch as that tense expresses the idea of fu- 
turity. See tenses. 

f Were then — a long time ago. J Have been ever since that time. 

§ It is impossible to give complete rules for the use of the preposi- 
tion. After studying the rules, and correcting the errors here given, 
the student should study the character of the language, and use judg- 
ment. 



SYNTAX. 169 

soon become adapted in our climatp. He came agreeable 
With his promise. The gentleman entertained an opinion 
entirely adverse against mine. This construction is con- 
formable with the general rule.* He seemed reconciled 
with his fate. She is reconciled at her condition. He 
was opposed against the measure. He lives opposite off 
the church. My sentiments, in regard of that, are simi- 
lar with J yours. This is the only exception in the rule. 
He bears a strong resemblance with his brother. Ho 
was true for the interests of his constituents; and true 
in the cause of liberty. He bestowed curses against him, 
and called fo§ him to desist. He waited || with his guests 
at the table. I thought about ^\ you very often. In com- 
pliance to your request, I send you the document. The 
character of his deeds was consonant to his professions. 
Why will you associate »»** such company? The gov- 
ernment will provide the army in arms. He provides 
well toff his family. I am provided on%% a long journey. 
He fell in among a band of robbers. He fell in to§§ the 
ditch. I was disgusted at\\\\ his impertinence. She 
pleaded fa^l^T n * m earnestly a long time. I shall call 
with *** you on my way to town. If you will wait f f f me 
at Mr. B's store, I will join you there. This is a change %%% 



* With may be used here. Words commencing with con, generally 
require with. 

f " Opposite to. 11 Opposite may be used without to. 

% Similar to. Always consider well the sense and meaning of the 
preposition you are about to use. 

\ Called may be followed by to, though upon is probably better. 

|| " Waited on." Wait may be followed by other prepositions also. 

If About is sometimes used after thought. Custom has sanctioned its 
use, so that it may not be deemed incorrect. Of] as well as on, is used 
after thought. 

p* " Associate with, or among." In is often used, but incorrect. 

tt " Provides for." %% " Provided for." Provided may be used in 
many sentences without a preposition; as, "He provided (i. e., pro- 
cured) a long stick,"' etc. 

§§ Connect in and to (into) To fall in with means to meet, to encounter. 

HI " Disgusted at" may be sufficiently correct. 

%% Plead may have for after it as well as with. Plead is often used 
without a preposition. 

*** jy Q call for signifies to stop for a person or thing; to call on is to 
visit, or to cry to ; to call in is simply to enter ; to call to is to cry to. 

ttt " Wait for me." Wait is often followed by other prepositions. 

XXX w e say sometimes "a change from good to bad," etc. 

15 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to the worse. He has -a taste of reading. Will yon taste 
on* the bread? This act was a derogation to his merit.f 
I shall be obliged to differ with you. Why do you differ 
with me? There is a difference among % us. I must dis- 
sent to that opinion. He was freed of the chains of 
bondage. I am free o/§ the charge. You are quite 
free in\\ your advice. He never swerves in the path 
of duty. I swerve^ to no man's opinion. You are con- 
versant m** that science, I think. This book was re- 
plete in errors. I find a difficulty of fixing my mind. 
This prince was naturally averse from war. Upon such 
occasions as fell into their cognizance. His abhorrence 
toff gaming was extreme. He was prejudiced toff the 
cause. He was followed with a great crowd. Certain 
words must be followed with appropriate prepositions.fj: 
I have been engaged on this work a long time.§§ 

The man actually died for thirst. He died of a Thurs- 
day. My house stands to the north-east side on the road. 
I have no occasion of his services. He has made no use 
with his talents. He is in want for provisions. He 
wants/or]||| provisions. See that the men do not want^J^jj 
provisions. His excuse was admitted 0/*** by his master. 
This construction admits fff the use of the preposition. 
It was admitted of XXI on all sides. All parties admitted 

* To taste of signifies to take into the mouth ; but a taste for, signi- 
fies a mental relish ; as, " a taste for reading." 

t " Derogation of or from." J " A difference between us." 

§ Of and to are both used after free j as, " He is free to act," etc. 

|| " Free with" f " I yield to," expresses the obvious meaning." 

-:•::•:- Words compounded with con, generally require with — " Conver- 
sant with." 

tt "Abhorrence of)" and, "prejudiced against. 11 

%X Copied verbatim from Lennie's grammar, page 111. To follow with 
is to be embodied with the following word, or whatever it may be ; as, 
• He followed with the multitude." 

II " Engaged in." But on may be used with propriety sometimes. 

Illl "To want" is to desire ; but " to want for" is to lack. 

f f Here for is required after want ; otherwise the sentence would be 
absurd. 

*** Of may be considered redundant in this place. " To admit" is 
to receive, to grant or allow, to admit of is to permit or require. 

ttt " Admits of, i. e., permits, or requires. 

XXX " Admitted," granted or allowed. 



SYNTAX. 171 

of* the fact. We walked about intcf the park a while, 
and then went out. I am six feet high when I stand 
into my boots. Thrust thy hand in % the molten liquid. 
We went in the park. He passed rapidly from the 
room, and went in that. We soon arrived in New 
Tork.§ We stopped, in our way, in Albany. How long 
have you resided at America ? |j I shall remain for some 
time at Prance. He has taken up his residence at New 
York. We went directly for Boston. ^[ He is going for 
England. They started to the gold region.** He de- 
parted to the west. I have been dtfff London after hav- 
ing resided at France. I was in the place appointed, a 
long time before he arrived. There was a large number 
of passengers at JJ the boat. He resides in Somerville.§§ 
He has a residence in the small town of Centerville.|||| 
They have rented a house at State street. He lives in 
No. 14, at Bank street.^ 



Obs. 1. A preposition should not be separated from 
the noun which it governs by another preposition, not a 
compound of a preceding verb. 

Ex. He came through of the house. He thrust his 
head from*** out of the window. He withdrew the 



* " Admitted," granted or allowed. 

t Into is a contraction of in and towards, and generally follows a 
verb of motion, because it signifies from without to the inside. In de- 
notes a position already within, but may follow either a verb of rest or 
motion. 

% Into, i. e., from without to the inside. 

§ At should follow a verb of rest or position, {arrived does not denote 
motion.) 

|| Before large cities, countries, states, counties, provinces, etc., we 
should use in instead of at. 

% After a verb of motion use to or towards. 

** After verbs of departure use for. 

tt At is generally used after the verb to be ; but there are many ex- 
ceptions to the rule. It is better to say "in London" or "to London.' 1 ■ 

XX " Ify' or "orc" the boat. At is ridiculous here. 

$ At is generally used before the names of villages or small towns; 
but not always ; as we may say, "" He owns a house in the village of 

F ." "A house was burned in Cheltenham," etc. 

. mi This sentence is sufficiently correct as it stands. 

fl" In or <> n a street. At a number. 

*** From is redundant. We may say " he withdrew from out the 
fire," etc. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

iron Jrom out of the fire. Place the book over* on 
the shelf. He went up f into an exceeding high 
mountain. Take the book from off the table. Put the 
stool in* under the table. Lift your book off of the 
desk. He came from beyond your place.'! I stood near 
by the man at the time. He came near about the house. 
He went acrosst§ over the stream. He approached to- 
ward\\ of the man. 

Eule XV. — Conjunctions connect the same 
moods and tenses of verbs, when the nominative 
is expressed but once. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

He stood near the door and has spoken to me often. 
Anger glances into the breast of a wise man, but will rest 
only in the bosom of fools. She has played and sang that 
same song many a time. And dost thou raise thy voice 
against me, and bringest^f me to judgment! If a man 
have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone astray, 
doih^\ he not leave the ninety-and-nine and goeth into 
the mountain and seeketh 9 ^ that which ig gone astray. 
To be moderate in our views, and proceeding temperately 
in the pursuit of them, is the best way to insure suc- 
cess. 

Obs. 1. But when the conjunction connects different 
moods or tenses, the nominative should be generally 
repeated. 

Ex. These people have indeed acquired riches, but do 
not command our esteem. The jury was closeted a long 
time, but could come ** to no agreement. He might have 
been happy, and is now fully convinced of it. He might 
have been rich, if industrious. ff Rank may confer influ- 
ence, but will%% not necessarily produce virtue. 

* Redundant. t Correct. Up, an adverb. 

J Correct. " He came from (the place which is) beyond,' 7 etc. 

j There is no such word as acrost, or acrosst. Across is the word. 

|| Towards, not toward. Toward is an adjective, meaning apt, ready, 
etc., the opposite of froward. 

^[The same form of the verb must also be continued; Hhou dost 
raise and (dost) bring," etc. 

** " It could come :" i. e., the jury. 

tt Supply, " if he had been:' \% " But it will not/ ? etc. 



SYNTAX, 173 

Obs. 2. Conjunctions connect the same cases of nouns 
or pronouns, when the nouns or pronouns so connected 
have a relation to one and the same word. 

Ex. My brother and me are tolerable mathematicians. 
You and him, I believe, are leagued together. There is 
no person more industrious than him* They have gained 
more than us. He is as good as her. I am not so skill- 
ful as him. He is a better scholar than me.f There was 
no one there but him. % He was the only person but me J 
at the house. We know as much as them that profess 
more. 

Obs. 3. The conjunctions if, though, lest, unless, although^ 
since, except, whether and provided, generally require the 
subjunctive form of the verb to follow, when both con- 
tingency and futurity are expressed. § 

Ex. If a man smites his servant and he dies, he shall 
surely be put to death. If he returns to-morrow, he will 
call on me. Though he becomes || poor, yet will he be 
rich. Take him away, lest he kills us.^f I can not 
hear unless he repeats it.** I shall not be able to tell 
whether it is white or black.** 1 will pay you every 
farthing provided I am liberated.** 

Obs. 4. When had or were is used in the subjunctive 
without a conjunction, the nominative should follow the 
verb, the subjunctive conjunction being implied. 

Ex. "He had thy reason, would he skip and play." 
He had know me, he would have treated me differently. 
Was he ever so great and distinguished, this conduct 
would debase him. Was I to enumerate all her virtues, 
it would seem like flattery. 



* 'Than he isJ Do not call than a prep, in such cases. 

t ' Than I am. J % Correct if but is called a preposition. 

§ The Indicative form is often used to express both futurity and 
contingency; and the Potential more often. — See page 107. 

|| Here the Imperfect Potential is obviously required — 'though he 
should become — (at some future time J) 

% "Lest he kill;" or, "lest he should kill;" (Potential Imp.) 

** We see no reason why these sentences are not correct as they 
stand. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 5. Some conjunctions require their appropriate 
correspondents, according to the list given on page 137, 
(which see.) 

Ex. I could neither understand his language or his 
gestures. It is so clear as I need not explain it. There 
is no condition so secure as can not admit of change. 
His raiment was so white as- snow. So * as thy days, so 
shall thy strength be. I could not see whether it was 
white nor black. I did not know if ho had come ornot.f 
Though he was lame, still he used to go about. J I could 
not either determine the sense or the construction. § Nor 
am I either a fool nor a knave. He told me he should go 
himself, or send a faithful servant. || He and his brother 
came.^f I could not see John nor James.** He took 
neither purse or script; no goods or money. I was so 
frightened as I ran away. He was so wise as he was 
eminent. I must be asf$ candid as to own, I did it. 

Obs. 6. Such, though not a conjunction, generally re- 
quires as after it. 

Ex. He gave such sharp replies that cost him his life. 
Such of you that come to me I will assist. Such men 
that act treacherously ought to be avoided. 

Obs. 7. But when such signifies l so great,' ' so good,' or 
1 so bad,' it requires that to follow it. 

Ex. He is such (so great) a knave as I left him. His 
behavior was such (so bad) as I expelled him. Such (so 
good) was her angelic disposition as we all loved her. 
He was such XX an apt scholar as he soon overcame all 

* So is redundant; it should be omitted. 

t Whether he had come, etc. It does not seem improper, however, 
to use if before or sometimes. 

J When still means yet or nevertheless, we think it should be retained. 

j Not either is equivalent to neither. The same may be said of "Nor 
either." |] Either — or. % Both — and. 

*« Neither — nor . But we see no reason why these last three sen- 
tences are not sufficiently correct as they stand. The correspondent 
need not always be used. 

tt So. The use of as and so must be governed by good taste. 

XX Used in the sense of so. Some grammarians recommend the use 
of so instead of such: "So apt a scholar;" "So brave a general;" but, 
as custom has sanctioned the use of such, we see no utility in the 
change. 






SYNTAX. 175 

difficulties. He was such * a brave general as he won 
the esteem of his army. He was such an indolent fellow 
that to lose all respect, f He had such an ambitious mind 
as<% to reach his goal, he toiled unceasingly. "For of 
such is the kingdom of heaven." § Such conduct is ex- 
tremely reprehensible. § 

Obs. 8. It is improper to use what for that when pre- 
ceded by the adverb but.\\ 

Ex. I can not say but what he did do so. I do not 
know but what the act was intentional. I have examined 
the work closel} 7 , and I do not see but what every, thing 
is correct. I do not know but what that was what I 
said. 

Obs. 9. Conjunctions are often implied. 

Ex. Intemperance, vice, crime, all^\ lead to destruc- 
tion. Honesty, virtue, integrity make a man respected. 
I think (that) he will return to-night. I know he is the 
man. 

Obs. 10. Conjunctions are often redundant, and should 
be omitted. 

Ex. The relations are so uncertain as that they require 
much examination. He has too much sense and prudence 
than to become a dupe to such an artifice. He is far too 



* In the sense of so. See note bottom of page 174. 

t Such requires as before an infinitive not used in a parenthetical 
clause. 

t But before an infin. used in a parenthetical section it requires that. 
(The parentheses are sometimes indicated by comma*.) 

§ Such is often used without the corresponding as or that: neverthe- 
less, one of these words is always implied; such as these, etc. 

|| Because what can not be called a conjunction; nevertheless, it 
seems as if w hat could sometimes be construed as a pronoun. "I do 
not know but what he did;" i. e., "but he did what J 1 On the other 
hand, it will be contended that this is not in strict accordance with 
the meaning of the sentence. What is very often used for that even 
in other constructions; as, "For all what I can see, the thing is just/' 
Here the word what may be parsed as a relative pronoun, or an adjec- 
tive belonging to things understood; so it is no grammatical error, 
but rather a violation of good taste. 

If All is often introduced after a number of nouns to render the ex- 
pression emphatic. It is not redundant. Where and is implied, the 
verb must be plural. 



176 . ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

wise as to commit such an error. He has little of the 
scholar than the name. 

Obs. 11. The poets often use or for either, nor for neither, 
and for both, etc. 

Ex. Nor Greek nor Turk shall ever wake again. Or 
Heroda or Bulalie would listen to the song. And horse 
and man plunged in the awful deep. 

Kule XVI. — Singular nominatives, connected 
by and, in such a manner as to express more than 
one person or thing, require verbs, nouns and pro- 
nouns, agreeing with them, or placed in apposition 
with them, to be plural ; as, James and John have 
immortal souls : their bodies may return to dust, 
but they shall live.* 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices. 
Wisdom, virtue and happiness dwells with the golden me- 
diocrity. In unity consists the welfare and security of 
society. The day and night was spent. Great was the 
praise and applause he received. What causes this alarm 
and outcry? Out of his mouth cometh falsehood and 
blasphemy. 

Obs. 1. Singular nouns followed by etc., or &c, require 
plural verbs. 

Ex. The firing of the guns, the rattling of the drums, 
the popping of the muskets, etc., etc., was kept up a long 
time. The page, paragraph, verse, line, etc., was pointed 
out. The care of the young, the attention given to their 
education, etc., occupies much of our time. 

Rule XVII. — Singular nominatives connected 
by or, nor, or any conjunction except and, require 

* This rule is not always observed, as we may see by the following 
quotations : " And so was also James and John, the sons of Zebedee," 
etc. "For thine is the kingdom, the power and the glory." In these 
cases each nominative is construed separately with the verb. 



SYNTAX. 177 

verbs, nouns and pronouns in the plural ; as, nei- 
ther William nor Henry is the boy. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Neither pride nor envy give us happiness. Man is not 
such a machine as* a clock or watch, which merely move 
as they are moved. Speaking impatiently to servants, or 
any thing that betrays inattention or ill humor, are cer- 
tainly criminal. None except a fool or madman do it. 
No person but he who is educated know the value of 
knowledge. John, as well as James, have returned. It 
may be confessed that neither satire nor ridicule carry in 
them robbery or murder. 

Obs. 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pro- 
noun, are connected by any conjunction other than and, 
the verb must agree with the noun or pronoun placed 
nearest it.* 

Ex. Neither John nor J are sure about the matter. 
Either I or thou am greatly mistaken. You or he come 
every day now, I believe. 

Obs. 2. A singular and a plural nominative, connected 
by any disjunctive conjunction, require a plural verb to 
agree with the plural nominative, which should always 
be placed nearest the verb ; as I or they were offended. 
Neither he nor they are happy. 

Ex. He or they was offended at it. Neither the king 
nor his ministers deserves to be praised. The cares of this 
life or the deceitfulness of riches has choked the seeds 
of virtue in many a promising niind.f Neither poverty 
nor riches icas injurious to him. Heavy defalcations or 
the suspension of the bank has completed his ruin.f 

Obs. 3. When a pronoun refers to two words of differ- 

* The verb, .although expressed only after the last person, is under- 
stood in its proper place before each of the other persons; and the 
sentence " Thou or I am happy," when the ellipsis is supplied, reads 
thus : " Thou art happy or I am happy." " I, thou or he is the author 
of it; i. e., "I am, thou art, or he is the author, etc. In parsing, or 
correcting, these verbs should be supplied. 

t Construe the plural nominative before the verb; thus, "the deceit^ 
fulness of riches, or the cares of this life, have choked," etc. 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

i 
ent persons, coupled by and, it becomes plural, and is 

used in the first person when I or we is mentioned, and 

in the second when I or we is not used ; as, " John and I 

will lend you our books." " You and James have got your 

lessons." 

Ex. Thou and he shared it between them. James and 
J are attentive to their studies. You and he are diligent 
in reading their books, therefore, they are good boys. 

Obs. 4. When the verb to be comes between- a singular 
and a plural nominative, it agrees with the one placed 
next it, or with that one which seems to be more natu- 
rally the subject of it; as, " the wages of sin is death." 

Ex. A great cause of the low state of industry was the 
restraints put upon it. His meat were locusts and wild 
honey. His chief occupation and enjoyment were con- 
troversy. The crown of virtue are peace and honor. 

[Note. — It is of little consequence whether we use the verb plural or 
singular in these cases : we may say, " virtue and honor are the crown 
of virtue," or " virtue and honor is" etc. When we come to construe, 
or give the relation of each word separately for parsing, we must use 
the singular form of the verb in all cases when the nominative is sin- 
gular, and the plural form when the nominative is plural.] 

Rule XVIII. — The past participle of verbs 
should not be used for the imperfect tense, nor 
should the past tense of irregular verbs be used 
for the perfect participle. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
Do not lay the blame on me : I'm sure I never done 
it. You must have took it away, for I seen it here an 
hour ago. He begun to grow weary after having spoke 
so long. He drunk nearly a pint. We have wrote our 
copies, did our sums, and "spoke our pieces. He had mis- 
took his road, and so was drawed comjDletely out of his 
way. His resolution was too strong to be shook by every 
idle wind. He thinks the horse was stole. The stream 
was froze over; it has froze- since last night. She has 
showed me her drawings. He has broke his slate. He 
would have we%t with us, if he had been invite. I do be- 



SYNTAX. 179 

lieve I had* ought to have went. She had* ought to 
have did it. Since then I have saw that I was mistaken. 
I have just eat my breakfast. He run to the nearest 
shop. He has durstf to approach the house again. Has 
he so soon forgot what I told him ? He was took una- 
wares. He has not yet wore off his roughness of man- 
ner. Since you have forsook me I have wrote no more. 
They have bore no part in our labors. When he done it, 
I seen him. I see him do it yesterday. J The whole flock 
has flew a^ay. The stake is drove fast into the ground. 
The school has began.% The boys run quite fast just 
now. The thief has stole my watch. He was smote on 
his cheek. I was awoke by a great noise. He has came 
already : he come home yesterday. This book was gave 
to me. He has abode there a long time. He has bore 
.his misfortune patiently. He has ate his breakfast. John 
has tore his book. 

Eule XIX. — Care should be taken to preserve 
the natural order of the sentence, that each word 
may readily suggest its proper relation to the 
mind ; to prevent unusual fullness, or the repeti- 
tion of useless words; and to avoid an ellipsis 
that may render the sense ambiguous. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

He would not, it then appears, come up here to-daj4.|| 
Long he afterward, by midnight toil, by unceasing 
energy and indefatigable assiduity, this unfortunate 
habit, in a measure overcame. The reward is his due, 
and it has already or will be hereafter given to him.^f 
He was more bold and active, but not so wise as his com- 
panion.** Sincerity is as valuable, and even more valu- 

* Had should not be used before ought. See defective verbs, page 128. 

t Dare, to venture, is irregular ; but dare, to challenge, is regular. 

J. This is an error of frequent occurrence in the use of the present 
tense of the verb. 

£ Begin, began, begun. 

|| Do not separate the principal parts of the verb by a long phrase. 

If " Has been" and "will be." (" Has been already given to him, or ivill 
be hereafter.") 

m We can not say, "more bold as." " More bold than his companion, 
but not so wise." 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

able than knowledge.* I should often.be pleased to see 
you.f He would have sooner cut off his right hand. 
She might afterwards have corrected this fault. His for- 
tune being at stake, his fortune X was in danger of being 
lost. He has an affectionate brother and an affectionate 
sister. His temper will be often ruffled, and will be often ' 
disturbed. A house and orchard. § An animal and man.§ 
A learned and amiable § young man. I gladly shunned 
who gladly fled from me. I must, however, be so candid 
to own I have been mistaken. The captain lyad several 
men died in his ship of the fever. Several alterations, 
additions and corrections have been made in the work. |j 
The court of Prance or England was to have been um- 
pire.^ Which rule,** if it had been observed, the stu- 
dent would have found no difficulty in correcting the 
sentence. Two sentences, when they come together, and 
do not signify the* same thing, the former must be in the 
genitive or possessive case. 

Ons. 1. It is improper to place a clause of a sentence 
between a possessive case and the noun to which it be- 
longs, when the clause so interposed is parenthetical. 

Ex. They implicitly obeyed the protector's, as they 
called him, imperious mandates.ff These are David's, 
the king, priest and prophet of the Jewish people's 
psalms.tt This is Paul's, the christian hero, and great 
apostle of the Gentile's advice. This was the venerable 
father's (for thus they all loved to call him) paternal 
admonition. 



* " As valuable as ;" and, " more than'.'' 

t It is quite inelegant to interpose an adverb between the members 
of a verb, unless usage gives it that place, as in the case of "not" etc. 

X " It was in danger/' . i 

§ The adjective must be repeated when it assumes a different form: 
" A house and an orchard." tt A learned and an amiable," etc. 

|| "Alterations and corrections inf "additions to;" or, "The work 
has received several alterations, corrections and additions." 

\ " Or that of England." 

** "if which rule had been," etc.; otherwise "rule" will have no 
verb following it, as every nominative must and should have. Rule 
can not be redundant, since it must have an antecedent. 

tt "Implicitly obeyed the mandates of the protector, as they," etc. 

XX u These are the Psalms of David, the king, priest, and prophet of 
the Jewish people." 



RELATION. 



OF SENTENCES, SECTIONS, AND PHRASES. 
Being a guide to elegant composition and correct punctuation. 
Hitherto we have principally considered the relations 
of single words only; their peculiar properties, and the 
positions they occupy in a sentence. But language af- 
fords another distinct division of sentences, into sections 
or phrases, by means of which ideas are extended beyond 
their primary conception, and continued to almost any 
length at the will of the speaker : thus, " John went to 
Boston and purchased an assortment of goods." Here 
we have two separate ideas, (i. e., two sections,) com- 
prised in one sentence, the latter being connected to the 
former by the conjunction and. But what is a sentence? 
It is necessary that the student should be able to answer 
this question before proceeding further. 

OF THE SENTENCE. 

A sentence is a complete idea, or connected 
succession of ideas, included within a period : as, 
" John is." "John went to Albany." 

In other words, a sentence is the union of any num- 
ber of words, sufficient to make sense. " John went 11 ex- 
presses a complete idea, (of motion,) hence it is a sen- 
tence ; but, " to Albany " although it contains a secondary 
idea, is not a perfect sentence, because it does not con- 
tain a complete idea independent of the preceding part 
of the sentence. Again : " John went to Albany ; and 
he will return to-morrow," is a complete sentence in- 
volving two propositions, the latter being a secondary 
idea, dependent on the first ; for if we say, " and he will 
return to-morrow," it is evident the sense is incomplete ; 
not because an idea is not expressed, but because we do 

(181) 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

not know the antecedent of $he conjunction and* nor of 
the pronoun he. Hence ? 

Every complete principal sentence must con- 
tain a noun in the nominative case ; and a verb, 
fully expressed. 

For, if the nominative be a pronoun, or if either the 
nominative or the verb be implied, it is a secondary 
section, and must relate to a primary that contains the 
nominative or verb implied in this. 

Thus it will be seen that sentences are of two kinds, 
simple and compound. 

A simple sentence is the union of its being 
(nominative noun,) to its existence, (verb ;) and is 
composed of not less than two> nor more than 
three principal words, as, u John walks." "John 
shot a bird." 

For, although a simple sentence may contain a greater 
number of words than three, it must be remembered 
that all words except the nominative, the verb and its 
object are in no wise essential to the formation of the sen- 
tence. They may limit or extend, modify or general- 
ize and yet if they be all stricken out, the sense remains 
complete. Thus, " The black iron stove stands on 
the floor," expresses but one general idea, the two words 
that form the sentence being stove and stands. The ad- 
jectives black and iron form but part and parcel of the 
noun stove, and the adverbial phrase, " on the floor " is 
part of the verb " stands" ■ 

THE EORM OF AN ANCIENT UNBROKEN SENTENCE.f 

ThemidnightMoonserenelysmileso' 'erNaturd 'ssoftRepose. * 

By introducing a space between moon and serenely, we 
shall divide the first sentence into its logical subject 
and predicate. 

LOGICAL SUBJECT. LOGICAL PREDICATE. 

Themidni ght Moon serenely smileso'erNature' ssoftRepose. 

Here we see, that a logical subject is the nominative, to- 



* The conjunction, as well as the pronoun, requires an antecedent 
word or sentence. 

t The ancients used neither points nor spaces in their sentences. 






SENTENCES. 183 

gether with all other words having a relation to it, and 
the logical predicate is the verb, and all those words 
which modify or hold a constructive dependence upon 
it. Now we will, by introducing into this sentence 
three more spaces, and a point, draw out the grammati- 
cal nominative and verb, and divide the sentence : 

NOMINATIVE. VERB. 

Tfremidnight moon serenely smiles, o'erNature'ssoftRepose. 

The grammatical nominative is the single noun or pro- 
noun preceding, (in construction,) and having a single 
relation to the verb ; as, moon 2 smiles ; and the gram- 
matical predicate is the single verb used to assert the ex- 
istence or action of that nominative ; as, moon smiles. 9 
Hence, words in a sentence naturally fall into this two- 
fold division : sentensic, or subject and predicate which form 
the sentence ; and insentensic, or complements which have 
no sense until they are united to the sentensic. 

Insente?isic. The midnight serenely o'er Nature's, etc. 

Sentensic. moon 2 smiles 9 

If the sentence contain a transitive verb it must be 
recollected that the accusative, and all the modifying or 
limiting words belonging to it form a part of the verb, 
i. e., the logical predicate: thus : 

LOGICAL SUBJECT. LOGICAL PREDICATE. 

A certain man built a long, broad, stone wall. 

A compound sentence is formed by the union 
of two or more ideas joined by a conjunction or 
pronoun, into one period. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

SUBJECT. PREDICATE. 

William will return to-morrow. 

A broad, high, long, 

stone wall was built by John. 

John, James, and Henry study their lessons diligently. 
A good son will always . yield obedience 

to his parents. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

SUBJECT. PREDICATE. 

John, who loved his father strove to conciliate his regard. 

Washington crossed the Delaware, and won the victory. 

GOD, who, at sundry times and in di- \ ( HATH, in these latter days 
. vers manners spake, in times past I J SPOKEN unto us by his 
unto the fathers by the prophets, J ( Son. 

Our father who art in heaven. 

OF THE SECTION. 

A section is a part of a sentence, constituted bv 
having a word of the 2d, 3d ? 4th, 7th, or 17th re- 
lation, for a trunk or base, and a branch word to 
give it a case relation ;* as, "John struck James." 
" William is a good scholar (1st sec.) because he 
studies well, (2d sec.) 

ORDER. 

Sections are divided into two orders, 1st, Pri- 
mary, 2d, Secondary. 

A Primary section must always contain a nom- 
inative noun and verb expressed. 

Hence a Primary section is similar to a simple sen- 
tence. There is, however, this difference, that while a 
simple sentence admits a prepositional phrase in connec- 
tion with either its nominative or its verb, a Primary 
section does not; for every phrase thus following, forms 
a new section of a secondary order; and while a sen- 
tence of a simple form does not admit of the compound 
form the Primary section may be followed by any num- 
ber of consecutive secondary sections. 
| A section containing an independent case must of ne- 



'•'The essentials of a section are — 
1st. The subject and predicate; as John% ivalksP 
2d. The case independent; as John$ 
3d. The case absolute; as, the general 4 being slain. 
4th. The objective case and preposition ; as, m 14 silenced 
5th. The interjection; as, Ah!^ alas I'M 
It will be seen that the accusative case can never occupy the trunk 
position, as it entirely differs, in construction, from the objective. 
> See the sections, as they are found on the plate, page 33. 






i 



SECTIONS. 185 

cessity be a primary, since it can not hold a relation to 
any other section, nor be dependent on any other word 
for sense. 

A secondary section is one that follows a pri- 
mary, and is connected to it by a conjunction or 
a pronoun j a preposition, an adverb, or a par- 
ticiple. 

As has been already shown, a secondary section can 
make no sense until united to the primary section which 
should naturally sustain it. 

PRIMARY SECTION. SECONDARY SECTIONS. 

Heaven hides the book J of fate, 

{ from all creatures. 

The first of these secondary sections, ' of fate, 1 has 
an adjective relation to book (i. e., fatal book), and the 
second holds an adverbial relation to the verb hides. 
Hides thus. 

PRIMARY SECTION. 

" Julius Caesar would not disband his army, 

SECONDARY SECTIONS. 

And return a private person to Kome,* 
Because he was very sensible he should be called to an 
account for extravagant management, in the time of his 
consulship, in his province, which would have blasted 
his ambitious designs, of destroying the liberties of 
Rome, and taking the government to himself." 

The first and is a conjunction, uniting the two actions, 
expressed by the respective verbs disband and return, to 
a common nominative, Julius Caesar, and shows that he, 
who was unwilling to perform the first of these actions^ 
was equally unwilling to perform the last ; and that the 
reason was, because he did not will that either should be 
done. 

Because is a conjunction, uniting the latter part of this 
period to the former, and shows the relation it has to it, 
viz : that of a cause, producing the effect mentioned in 
the former part of the period ; for, what is affirmed in 
the latter part is by the conjunction because, represented 

* " And return," etc., is, in effect, part of the primary section, not- 
withstanding its secondary position. 

16 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as being the cause, reason, or motive, which induced 
Csesar, not to will the disbanding of his army, and his 
private return to Rome; while the last and, by connect- 
ing "destroying the liberty," and "taking the govern- 
ment," shows that he designed both. 

"God will not finally let the wicked go unpunished, 
though he bear with them so far in this life, as to let 
them fare sumptuously, and go down to the grave in 
peace; for man, in this world, is in a state of trial; 
therefore, it would not be consistent with that intention 
of an all- wise God to punish wickedness, constantly and 
visibly, in this life." 

Though shows the subjoined clause to hold a con- 
structive dependence on the former, so far as to signify 
nothing in the mind of the speaker without a regard 
thereto. 

The conjunction as unites its clause to that which 
goes before, and expresses its relation by determining 
the extent of what was indefinitely expressed in the 
foregoing clauses of the period. 

And connects "go down in peace" with "fare sump- 
tuously," and signifies that both of these actions are 
permitted by the Almighty for the reason expressed in 
the next section. 

For shows that the section which it heads holds a 
constructive union with the two preceding sections, and 
shows the relation to be that of a cause or reason why 
he suffers them to fare sumptuously, and to die in joeace. 

Therefore shows that the part of the period which 
follows it, is construed with all that precedes it, as its 
cause, and implies that this world, being intended as a 
state of trial, renders it impracticable for him to punish 
vice consistently with that design, for that would not be. 
to try them, but forcing them to be good, by destroying 
their power to be otherwise, since there can be no true 
virtue without liberty. 

The sentence which follows a conjunction, is not 
always a secondary section when it contains a noun 
in the nominative; for in that case it is not dependent 
on the former section for sense; thus, 'John has finished 
his task, and William is eating his breakfast.' A glance 
will serve to show that the section following ' and ' is a 
section of the primary order, since it does not depend 






SECTIONS. 187 

on the former for a completion of sense. " William is 
eating his breakfast " is a perfect and complete idea. 

" John is a good scholar, but William is a better." 
Here the comparative adjective better indicates that the 
positive must have preceded it; hence, " William is a 
better " is a secondary section, depending on the pri- 
mary for sense. 

"He is a better scholar than I am." Here the posi- 
tive assertion follows the comparative, by which we see 
that " I am (a good scholar) is the primary section, and 
" he is a better scholar," the secondary, depending on 
the primary "I am (a better scholar") for sense. In the 
sentence, " John has learned his lesson, but William has 
not learned his lesson," both sections are primary; but 
when we say, "John has learned his lesson, but William 
has not learned his," the ellipsis of the word lesson ren- 
ders the latter a secondary section. 

A relative pronoun may be used either in a sentensic 
or insentensic section, and shows that the section in 
which it occurs sustains to the antecedent' an adjective 
relation ; thus : 

Our Father who art in heaven. Here the two sec- 
tions, "who art" and "in heaven," sustain to the w T ord 
Father an adjective relation, being equivalent in sense 
to "our Heavenly Father." Who art in heaven, re- 
stricts the word Father, by excluding from the exten- 
sion of that word all earthly fathers. 

■ PRIMITIVE SECONDARY SECTIONS. 

god, (icho, at sundry times, and in divers manners, 
spake, in times past, unto the fathers, by the 
prophets,) 
hath, in these latter clays, 
spoken, unto us by his Son. 

In this example, that part of the period included in 
parentheses has an adjective relation to God, and withal 
restricts the extension of that noun by excluding from 
it the other gods, of the Greeks, Eomans, etc., and is 
equivalent to the adjective Jewish; thus, "The Jewish 
God hath spoken," etc. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OF THE PHRASE. 

A phrase is a secondary section of a sentence, 
connected to its primary by a preposition, an in- 
finitive mood, or a participle. 

The midnight moon serenely smiles (primary sec.) 
O'er nature's soft repose (secondary sec.) 

" O'er nature's soft repose " is a section of the second- 
ary order, and holds an adverbial relation to the verb 
smiles. 

The stove stands (primary sec.) 

in the room (secondary sec.) 

" In the room," is a secondary section, holding an ad- 
verbial relation to the verb stands. 
Heaven hides the book (prim, sec.) of fate (second, sec.) 

11 Of fate " is a section of the secondary order, holding 
an adjective relation to the noun book. 

We are satisfied (prim, sec.) with our lot (second, sec.) 

iC With our lot" is a section of the secondary order, 
holding an adverbial relation to the logical predicate 
" are satisfied, 1 ' or an auxiliary adjective relation to the 
adjective satisfied. 

He answered gravely (prim, sec.) 
in a measure (second, sec.) 

" In a measure," section, secondary order, and holds 
an adverbial relation to the predicate '• answered grave- 
ly," or an auxiliary adverbial relation to the adverb 
"gravely." 

OF RELATION. 

Primary sections have no relation. 

For, since a primary section does not depend on any 
other section for its existence in the sentence, it follows 
that it can not hold a dependent relation to any other 
member of the sentence. 

Every secondary section must hold a relation 
to its primary. 

Although, in general, all the secondary sections in 
a sentence hold a relation to the same primary section, 



RELATION. 189 

yet it sometimes happens that when two or three sec- 
tions or prepositional phrases follow in succession, each 
seems to hold a relation to that which immediately pre- 
cedes it ; as, " The extent of the prerogative of the king 
of England is sufficiently ascertained." 

RELATION. PHRASE. 

Extent of the prerogative (adj. rel. to extent.) 

Prerogative of the king (adj. rel. to prerogative.) 

King of England (adj. rel. to king.) 

Nevertheless, it must be obvious that since the pri- 
mary section sustains the first of these sections, it sus- 
tains them all ; hence, all hold an indirect relation to it. 

There are three principal sectional relations, 
adjective, adverbial and conjunctive. 

From what has already been stated, it will be seen 
that the prepositional phrase has the same relations as 
the preposition itself, as given on page 135 ; yet, for con- 
venience, it is perhaps better to make but two relations 
for the prepositional phrase, adjective and adverbial — 
adjective when it holds a relation to the subject, and 
adverbial when it holds a relation to the predicate of a 
sentence ; thus, " A man bent with age was seen to ap- 
proach." "With age," strictly speaking, holds an aux- 
iliary adjective relation to the adjective bent; but it 
would be more concise to sa}^ it holds an adjective rela- 
tion to the subject " a man bent.'" Either way is correct ; 
since, in one case, the phrase is referred to a particular 
word, and in the other, to the general subject. 

A section containing a relative pronoun holds 
an adjective relation to its primary section. 

This has been explained already; but, for the better 
understanding of the subject, one or two more examples 
are subjoined. 

u And who but wishes to invert the laws 
Of order, sins against the eternal cause." 
Prim. sec. And (he) sins against the eternal cause. 
Second, sec. Who wishes to invert the laws of order. 

" Who wishes to invert the laws of order" is a sec- 
ondary section, holding an adjective relation to its pri- 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

mary section, because it limits or restricts the signification 
or extension of the word he (or of the persons referred 
to) to a particular class. 

" Blest is the man who dares approach the bower." 
Blest is the man (primary section.) 

who dares approach the bower, (secondary section.) 
"Who dares approach," etc., holds an adjective rela- 
tion, because it restricts the extension of the noun man 
by prescribing a class. 

All relations not adjective, adverbial or aux- 
iliary adj. or adv., must be conjunctive. 

Sections connected to their primary by a personal 
pronoun do not give an adjective or adverbial relation ; 
as, 

John is a good boy : he is industrious. 
John is in town ; he is going to Boston. 

"He is industrious" is not a section of an adjective 
relation, notwithstanding it has at first that appearance, 
for we see by the second sentence, the construction of 
which is similar, that the relation must be conjunctive. 
It is, therefore, the occurrence of the adjective only in 
the first sentence that gives the secondary section the 
* sense of an adjective relation. 

Phrases, connected to their primary sections by verbs 
in the infinitive mood, are, in reality, part of the pri- 
mary to which they belong ; as, " He sins against the 
eternal cause who wishes to invert the laws of order." 
"To invert the laws" is so closely connected to "who 
wishes," as to form a part of that section. There are 
four sections in this sentence. "He sins" (primary sec- 
tion*) " against the eternal cause" (secondary section, 
adv. rel. to "sins.") "Who wishes to invert the laws" 
(aftfi rel. to pronoun "he") "of order" (secondary section 
adj. rel. to "laws. 1 ') 

" Blest is the man Primary section ; no relation. 

The adverb or adverbial conjunction is often used as a 
connective, by means of which office it gives the phrase 

* It is better, perhaps, to call this a primary section, since the ante- 
cedent is not specified. % 



RELATION. 191 

in which it occurs an adverbial relation to its primary; 
thus, " I will pay you when I receive my money." 
I will pay you (primary sec. ; no relation.) 

when I receive my money, (second, sec, adv. ret. to "pay") 

" I can not tell you how soon he may return." 
I can not tell you (primary sec. ; no relation.) 

how soon he may return, (secondary sec.., adv. rel. to " tell.") 

" His follies had reduced him to a situation where he 
had much to fear and nothing to hope." 

His follies had reduced him (primary section ; no relation.) 

to a situation (secondary sec, adv. rel. to "reduced.") 

where* he had much (second, sec, adj. rel. to " situation." 

(which) to fear (infin. phrase, rel. to " much." 

and (where* he had) nothing (secondary sec, adj. orconj. rel. to " situation.") 

(for which) to hope. (infin. phrase, rel. to " nothing.") 

Note. — When the proper relation, of either words or sections, is 
given, all the ellipses must be supplied, and all the words arranged in 
their natural prose order. 

The participle connects its phrase to its primary 

section, and holds an adjective relation to the noun 

or pronoun therein ; thus, " John, having opened 

the box, found nothing." 

" John found nothing," (primary section ; no relation.) 
" having opened the box." (second, sec, adj. rel. to " John" 

" And he, being destitute, renewed his efforts." 
He renewed his efforts, (primary section, no relation.) 
being destitute. (secondary sec, adj. rel. to u He.") 

And the relation is invariably the same when the par- 
ticiple is the object of a preposition." 

" On opening the box, John found nothing." ' 
John found nothing (primary section, no relation.) 
on opening the box. (secondary sec, adj. rel. to u John") 

But it must be observed, that when the pronoun in 
the second section is neuter, and does not relate to the 
agent, the secondary section must be referred to the sec- 
tion containing the agent of the act, or to the agent 
itself; as, " On opening the box, it was found empty." 

* Where means in which; hence it gives its phrase an adjective rela- 
tion ; although the relation of the adverbial conjunctive phrase is 
usually adverbial. 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The participle opening holds no relation to the pronoun 
it, since this neuter pronoun is not the agent that opens 
the box. The participle must always be referred to the 
agent that performs the act; hence the section, "on open- 
ing the box" must be referred to the person who per- 
formed this act, "John," "James," or any other person, 
if known; and to "person" or "persons" if unknown. 
But in the above sentence " it" stands for box, by which 
we see that the section, " it was found empty," is a sec- 
ondary section, holding a conjunctive relation to " box" 
in the first secondary section, to which it is connected 
by the pronoun it. 

" On opening the box," (secondary sec, adj. rel. to "per- 
sons" understood. 

" It was found empty," (second, sec. conj. rel. to " box") 

Having seen all we desired, it was resolved to return. 

Having seen all (things,) (second, sec. adj. rel. to "per- 
sons" understood. 

(Which) we desired, (second, sec. adj. rel. to "things") 

It was* resolved to return, (second, sec. conj. rel. to 
"having seen.") 

It,f being open, was found empty. 

« It was found empty, (second, sec. conj. rel. to "box") 
Being opened, (second, sec. adj. rel. to "it") 
A section containing an absolute case holds a conjunc- 
tive relation to its primary. Nevertheless the principle 
of the participle will remain the same, since it must 
hold an adjective relation to the noun or pronoun in its 
own section. 

"The general being killed, the army was routed." 
The army was routed, (prim. sec. no rel.) 
The general being killed, (second, sec. conj. rel. to " was 
routed") 

" It having ceased to rain, we resolved to return." 
We resolved to return, (primary sec, no rel.) 
It having ceased to rain, (second, sec. conj. rel. to 1st. 
section.) 

When the participle is used alone, without an object 
or a preposition, it may be considered merely as an ad- 

* " It" has no antecedent here — " was" being impersonal, 
t Here it refers to the agent of the passive verb " was found." 



FORM. 193 

jective, and be incorporated into the section which it 
qualifies. 

" John, having returned, received the visitors " — a pri- 
mary section, no relation. 

All the relations of phrases and sections may be enu- 
merated as follows : 

OF SECTIONS. 

The primary section has no relation. 

The relative pronoun gives its section an adjective 
relation. 

The conjunction and personal pronoun give conjunc- 
tive relation. 

The adverb, or adverbial conjunction, generally, gives 

an adverbial relation. 

OF PHRASES. 

-r> . , . f an adjective or aux. adi. relation. 

Prepositions give j an ad J verbial br aux ad J v _ relation> 

The participle gives an adjective relation to its noun 
in all cases, and to its primary section also, except when 
the preceding noun is absolute, in which case the rela- 
tion to the prim. sec. is conjunctive. 

FORM. 

All sections have two forms, first, Sentensic: 
second, Insentensic. A sentensic section contains a 
nominative and verb, as " John walks/' " John 
shot a bird." 

Hence all simple sentences and all primary sections are 
sentensic, since they must of necessity contain both a 
nominative and verb. 

An insentensic section is one that has no nom- 
inative case; and, generally, no verb. 

All secondary sections, connected to their primary by 
a conjunction, a relative pronoun, a personal pronoun, or an 
adverb, are sentensic. ■ 

All secondary sections connected to their primary, or 
to other secondary sections, by a preposition, or a parti- 
ciple, are, in all cases, insentensic. 

" John is in the room, and he will remain there." 

John is, primary sec. ; no rel. ; sentensic. 
17 



194 „ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the room; second, sec. adv. rel. to "is" insentensic. 
and he will remain there. Second, sec. ; conj. rel. to 
"is ;" sentensic. 

" John, who was expected, has returned. " 
John has returned, primary sec; no rel. ; sentensic. 
who was expected, second, sec; adj. rel. to "John; 11 
sentensic. 

" John is in the room ; he has just returned." 
John is in the room; prim, sec; no rel.; sentensic. 
he has just returned. Second, sec. ; conj. rel. to "John ;" 
sentensic. 

" I shall be satisfied when I receive my due." 
I shall be satisfied, prim, sec ; no rel. ; sentensic 
when I receive my due. Second, sec; adv. rel.; sen- 
tensic 

" The table stands on the floor/' 
The table stands, prim, sec; no rel.; sentensic 
on the floor. Second, sec; adv. rel. to "stands; 17 insen- 
tensic 

" Napoleon resolved to make the attempt." 
Napoleon resolved, prim. sec. ; sentensic 
to make the attempt. Infin. phrase ; insentensic. 
" James returned, having accomplished his design." 
James returned, primary sec ; sentensic. 
Having accomplished his design. Second, sec; insen- 
tensic 

Sections are also either positive or negative, in- 
terrogative or affirmative. (See page 106.) 

" John is in the house;" positive, affirmative. 

" Is John in the house?" pos. interrogative. 

" John is not in the house ;" negative affirmative* 

"Is not John in the house?" negative interrogative. 

Sometimes a single section contains an interrogation, 
and sometimes it requires a number in succession to 
form the interrogation. When the latter is the case, 
each section should be considered as interrogative, inas- 
much as it contributes to the general understanding of 
the question. 

* A negative assertion may be affirmed; as, John did not shoot a bird. 
An affirmation is an answer of any kind. 



COURSE. 195 

"Do you think that John will return in a few days?" 
Do you think {prim, sec; no rel.; sent., interrog.) 
That John will return (second, sec.; conj. rel.; sent., 
interrog.) 

In a few days ? (second, sec. ; adv. rel. ; insert, inter.) 

All sentences that ask a question are interrogative, 
and those that reply, affirmative. 

All sentences stating a fact are positive, and all that 
deny the fact, are negative. 

COURSE. 

1. Direct 2. Circumflex. 
The course of a section is direct, when the 
words stand in their natural prose order ; as, 
Law is a rule (of action.) 
Law is a rule, a section of the primary order, direct 
course. 

Of action, a secondary section, direct course. 
The course of a section is circumflex, when the sense 
flows back, owing to the words not being arranged in 
their prose order : as, 

• Whom 3 ye 1 ignorantly worship, 
Him 3 declare 2 I 1 unto you. 
Whom ye ignorantly worship, a section, secondary order, 
circumflex course, because the sense commences at the 
word ye, proceeds forward ,to worship, then flows back 
to whom. 

Him 3 declare 2 I 1 ; & section, primary order, circumflex 
course. The direct course would be : I * declare 2 him. 3 
The words in these two sections are not only circumflex, 
but the sections are so likewise. 

Circumflex. Whom ye ignorantly worship, Him de- 
clare I. 

Direct. I declare Him ye ignorantly worship whom. 
When the words of a single section only are circumflex, 
it does not affect the order of other sections. 

" The night winds sigh, the breakers roar, 
And shrieks the wild seamen." 
The night winds sigh: a section, primary order ; no re- 
lation ; sentensic ; direct course. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

The breakers roar: primary order, no relation ; senten- 
sic ; direct course. 

And shrieks the wild seamen : section, secondary order, 
conjunctive relation to "sigh" and " roar; 1 ' sentensic, 
circumflex course. 

When the sections are circumflex, and the words them- 
selves direct, we may take cognizance of the fact by 
calling the first primary section circumflex; or the 
course of the general sentence may be disregarded, and 
each section be called direct. 

" Until you return. I shall remain." 
" I shall remain,' 7 {primary section, circumflex course^ 
" until you return," {prim, sec, direct course.) 

Sentences containing a relative in the accusative, are 
always circumflex. " This is the man whom 3 1 1 met 2 on 
my journey." 

STATE. 

1 f Plenary, ^ f Implenary^ 
\ Broken. " \ Unbroken. 

The plenary state arises from that degree of 
fullness which admits of solution without supply- 
ing words ; as, [ 0, ] John ! give [thou to'] me an 
an apple. It is at the ninth hour on the clock. 

The implenary state arises from the elliptical 
omission of any w r ord or words necessary to a so- 
lution of the sentence; as, 

John, give me an apple. 

It is 9 o' clock. 

An elliptical or implenary section should be considered 
in the same light as if all the words were supplied ; thus, 
" He that believes and is baptized shall be saved." 

He shall be saved (1. sec, no rel.; sent., plenary.) 

that believes (2. sec. ; adj. rel. to " he /" sent., plenary. 

and [that] is baptized. (2. sec, adj. rel. to "he;" sent., implenary.) 

If we had not supplied the word "that" in the last 
section, we should have supposed it to be connected to 
the former by the conjunction and, and to hold only a 
conjunctive relation to the former section by means of 
that connection. But when we make the section plenary 






STATE. 197 

by supplying the ellipsis, the true relation becomes ap- 
parent. The conjunctive relation, nevertheless, exists 
in addition to the adjective relation to the antecedent 
"ft?/' 

A section is broken when a part of a sentence, 
another section or part of a section intervenes be- 
tween its parts ; as, 

Law (in its most comprehensive sense) is a rule. 
And varying schemes (of life) no more distract the will. 
The unbroken state of a section is the uninterrupted 
continuation of all its parts ; as, 

Law is a rule (of action). 

Varying schemes no more distract the laboring will. 

It sometimes happens that the nominative is separated 
a long way from its verb by a great number of interven- 
ing sections. 

" He, who through vast immensity can pierce, 
See worlds on worlds compose one universe, 
Observe how system into system runs, 
What other planets circle other suns, 
What varied being people every star, 
May tell why heaven has made us as we are." 

" He may tell," section, primary order ; broken state. 

Sometimes two or more nominatives follow each other 
successively, but this, although it separates the first 
nominative from its verb, does not constitute a broken 
section, since each nominative* is but a part of the gene- 
ral whole. 

" Wisdom, virtue and happiness dwell with the golden 
mediocrity." 

Wisdom, virtue and happiness dwell, (sec. prim, ord.; 
unbroken state.) 

"Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him/' 

Neither poverty nor riches were injurious, (prim, sec, 
unbroken state.) 

But when either of these nominatives is connected 
with an entire phrase or section, the primary seetion is 
broken. 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

" "When some brisk youth, the tenant of a stall, 
Employs a pen less pointed than his awl." 

"Youth, the tenant, employs," etc., prim, sec, broken 
state; i. e., broken by the phrase " of a stall." . " A pen 
less pointed than his awl" is accusative of employs. 

Class. — 1. Literal. 2. Figurative. 

The literal class is that which expresses the meaning 
according to the words (or letters) used ; as, 

The midnight moon serenely smiles. 
A ship sails on the seas. 

A section is figurative when one or more words in it 
convey a different meaning from what the words literally 
import. 

The principal figures of speech are personifi- 
cation, SIMILE, METAPHOK, ALLEGORY, HYPERBOLE, 
IRONY, METONOMY, SYNECDOCHE, ANTITHESIS, CLIMAX 
and APOSTROPHE. 

Personification is a figure of speech by which we 
attribute life and action to inanimate objects ; as, The 
midnight moon serenely smiles. 

A simile is a comparison, by which one object is made 
to resemble another; as, He is like a giant; she is as a 
modest lily. 

A metaphor is a simile without the sign of compari- 
son (like as, etc.) He is a giant ! She is a modest lily. 

An allegory, parable'ot fable is a figure by which 
speech and intelligence are attributed to animals and 
even inanimate objects ; as, 

A hog, beholding the horse of a warrior, rushing into 
battle, says: "Fool, whither dost thou hasten? Per- 
haps thou mayst die in the fight;" to whom the horse 
replied : " A knife shall take life from thee, fatted 
amongst mud and filth, but glory shall accompany my 
death." 

A hyperbole is a figure that represents things much 
better or worse, greater or less than they really are; as, 
" They are swifter than eagles; they were stronger than 
lions." This exaggeration is often improperly em- 



FIGURES. 199 

ployed ; as, " He told me so more than a thousand 
times." " There were a million people there." 

Irony is used to express quite the contrary to that 
which our words would import; as, " O, yes; I dare 
say, you are a philosopher, forsooth; a poet, and an 
unrivaled genius. You will some day be made a 
king!" 

Metonomy is a figure by which we put the cause for 
the effect, or the effect for the cause ; as, " He reads Mil- 
ton," (i. e., Milton's works.) " Gray hairs should be re- 
spected," (i. e., old age.) u The kettle boils," (i. e., the 
water in the kettle,) etc. 

Synecdoche is the putting of a part for the whole, or 
the whole for a part; a definite number for an indefinite, 
etc.; as, '-Eye hath not seen, nor ear hath heard," ({. e., 
no person hath seen or heard.) " The waves have borne 
him safely home," (i. e., the ocean.) 

[Metonomy and Synecdoche are very similar; yet 
there is this difference— any one thing may be put for 
another by Metonomy, when the resemblance is suffi- 
cient to render the meaning intelligible; as, He keeps a 
good table, (i. e., good fare.) He has a clear head, (i. e., 
understanding.) A ship sails o'er the salt or deep, (i. e., 
the sea.) But Synecdoche only allows part of any one 
thing to be put for whole of that same thing, and vice 
versa.~] 

Antithesis is a figure by which things are contrasted, 
in order to make them appear better or worse, larger or 
smaller, etc.; thus, "I, indeed, baptize with water, but 
one cometh after me, the latch et of whose shoes I am 
unworthy to unloose." 

Climax is the gradual ascension of a figure, step by 
step, as one would climb a ladder, until the night is 
reached; thus, " For I am persuaded that neither death 
nor life, nor angels nor principalities, nor powers, nor 
things present nor things to come, nor hight nor depth, 
nor any other creature, shall be able to separate us from 
the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord." 

Apostrophe is an address, generally to some inani- 
mate object or animal ; as. " O, grave, where is thy 
victory! 0, death, where is thy sting!" 

" O, factious viper! whose envenomed tooth 
Would mangle still the dead, perverting truth." 



200 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



[Persons, countries, cities, oceans, skies, etc., are often 
apostrophized by the poets.] 

EXERCISES IN CLASSIFYING»THE FIGURES. 

" Woe unto you lawyers! for ye have taken away the 
key of knowledge.'" 

u rj^ e g rounc i f a certain rich man brought forth 
plentifully: and he thought within himself, What shall 
I do because I have no room where to bestow my fruits? 
And he said this will I do: I will pull down my barns 
and build greater; and there will I bestow all my fruits 
and my goods. And I will say to my soul, Soul, thou 
hast much goods laid up for many years; take thine 
ease, eat, drink, and be merry. But God said unto him, 
Thou fool! this night thy soul shall be required of 
thee." 

" I have come to send fire on the earth, and what will 
I if it be already kindled?" 

"O, Jerusalem! Jerusalem! which killest prophets, 
and stonest them that are sent unto thee." 

" Sit thou on my right hand till I make thine enemies 
my footstool." 

"I am the living bread which came down from heaven." 

" Ye are from beneath; I am from above: ye are of 
this world; I am not of this world." 



2. 



1st. 
Order, 



ORDER OF PARSING THE SECTIONS. 

A section. 



( Primary. 
| Secondary. 

{Adjective. 
Adverbial. 
Conjunctive. 



5. Course, 



6. State. 



4. Form, 



7. Class, 



jSentensic. 
(Insentensic 
c p f Affirmative. 
( Interrogative. 

Nesr \ Affirmative - 
°' | Interrogative. 



■ f Direct. 

\ Circumflex. 

f Plenary. 
\ Implenary. 
( Broken. 
| Unbroken. 

f Literal. 
{ Figurative. 



ANALYSIS. 201 

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS. 

"The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold; 
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, 
When the blue waves roll nightly on deep Galilee/' 

" The Assyrian cam? down:" 
A section; primary order; no relation; sentensic and 
positive affirmative form; direct course; plenary and 
unbroken state ; literal class. 

"Like* the wolf:" 
A section ; secondary order ; adverbial relation to 
came; insentensic and positive affirmative form; direct 
course ; plenary and unbroken state ; figurative class. — 
Simile. 

' "On the fold:" 

A section ; secondary order ; adverbial relation to 
came ; insentensic and positive affirmative form ; direct 
course ; plenary and unbroken state ; figurative class. — 
Simile.\ * 

"-And his cohorts were gleaming:" 

A section ; secondary order ; conjunctive relation to 
came;\ sentensic and positive affirmative form; direct 
course ; plenary and unbroken state ; literal class. 
"With purple | and (with) gold:" 

Sections; secondary order: adverbial relation to gleam- 
ing; insentensic ;§ direct course; implenary and unbroken 
state; literal class. || 

" And the sheen was :" 

A section ; primary order ; no relation ; sentensic and 
positive affirmative form ; direct course ; plenary state, 
broken by " of their spears;" figurative.^" — Simile. 

" Of their spears :" 
Section; sec. ord.; adj. rel. to sheen; insen.; direct 
course ; plenary, unbroken state ; literal, class. 



* Like, a preposition. f Continuation of the figure. 

X Or primary order] no rel.; since the noun rs expressed. 

§ Pos. and neg. distiction may be omitted after the first primary sec. 

|| There is an appearance of Hyperbole here. 

^ The simile commences with this section. 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"Like stars," "on the sea:" 
Sections; sec. ord. ; adv. rel. to was; insen.; direct 
course ; plenary and unbroken state ; figurative class. — 
Simile. 

" When the blue waves roll nightly :" 
Section; sec. ord. ; jtdv. rel. to was; sentensic; direct 
course ; plenary, unbroken state ; literal class. 
"On deep Galilee:" 
A section; sec. ord. ; adv. rel. to roll ; insen.; dir. co.; 
pi., unb. st.; lit. 

" Adieu, thou hill ! where early joy 

Spread roses o'er my brow ; 
Where Science seeks each loitering boy 

With knowledge to endow. 
Adieu, my youthful friends or foes, 
Partners of former bliss or woes; 

No more through Ida's paths we stray — 
Soon must I share the gloomy cell, 
Whose ever-slumbering inmates dwell 
' Unconscious of the d^gr." 

" Adieu, thou Hill," 
Sec. ; prim. ord. ; no rel. ; sent., pos. aff. form ; direct 
course ; plen., unbroken st. ; figurative class — apostrophe. 
" Where early joy spread roses :" 
Sec; second, ord.; adj. rel. to Hill; sent.; dir. co. ; 
pi., unbr. st. ; figurative — personification. 
" O'er my brow :" 
Sec; second, ord.; adv. to spread; insent.; dir., pi. 
unb. ; fig. — personification. 

" Where Science seeks each loitering boy, to endow (Mm,)" 
Sec; second, ord.;; adj. rel. to Hill; sent.; dir.; plen. 
unb.; fig. — personification. 

" With knowledge i\ 
Sec; second, ord.; adv. rel. to endow; insen.; dir. 
plen. unb. ; literal. 

" Adieu my youthful friends or foes, partners " 
Sec. ; prim. ord. ; no-rel. ; sent. pos. aff. ; dir. ; plen 
unb.; literal. 

"Of former bliss or woes :" 
Sec; second, ord. ; adj. rel. to partners; insent.; dir. 
plen. unb.; literal. 






ANALYSIS. 203 

" No more we stray :" 
Sec. ; prim. ; no rel. ; sent. pos. aff. ; dir. ; pi. bro. ; 
literal. 

" Through Ida's paths :" 
Sec. second.; adv. rel. to stray; insent. ; circumflex 
course ; pi. unb. ; literal. 

' " Soon must I share the gloomy cell:" 
Sec. ; prim.; no rel. ; sent. pos. aff. ; circ. ; plen. unb. ; 
fig. — Metonomy* 

"Whose ever slumbering inmates dwell, unconscious :" 
Sec. ; prim. ; sent. pos. aff. ; dir. ; pi. unb. ; fig. — Me- 
tonomy. 

" Of the day :" 
Sec. second.; aux. adj. rel. to unconscious; insen. ; 
dir. ; pi. unb. ; literal. 

As two young bears in wanton mood, 
Forth issuing from a neighboring wood, 
Came where the industrious bees had stor'd, 
In artful cells, their luscious hoard ; 
O'erjoyed, they seized, with eager haste, 
Luxurious on + the rich repast. 
Alarmed at this, the little crew 
About their ears, vindictive flew. 
The beasts, unable to sustain 
The unequal combat, quit the plain : 
Half-blind with rage§ and mad with pain,§ 
Their native shelter they regain ; 
There sit, and now discreeter grown, 
Too late their rashness they bemoan ; 
And this by dear experience gain, 
That pleasure's ever bought with pain. 
So,f when the gilded baits of vice 
Are placed before our longing eyes, 
With greedy haste, we snatch our fill, 
And swallow-down J the latent ill: 
But when experience opes our eyes, 
Away the fancied pleasure flies. 

* The word cell is used for grave. 
t See relation of as and so, as given on page 138. 
X Seized-on and swallow-down are compound transitive verbs, 
j The phrases, with rage and with pain, have an auxiliary adjective 
relation to blind and mad. 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It flies, but oh ! too late we find, 

It leaves a real sting behind (it.) Merrick. 

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN SECTIONS. 

[The parallel lines divide the sections : the single lines divide broken 
sections, and separate the intervening phrases.] 



of my dream. 1 1 
:|| in the wilds|| 



" A change came|| o'er the spirit) 
The boy was sprung|| to manhood: 
Of fiery climes|| he madei himself *| a home.] 
And his soul drank their sunbeams :|| he was girt|| 
With strange and dusky aspects ;|| he was not 
Himself || like what|| he had been ;|| on the sea|| 
And on the shore|| he was a wanderer.|| 
There was a mass|| of many images|| 
Crowdedf || like waves|| upon me,|| but he was 
Apart|| of all:J|| and in the last§|| he lay 
Eeposing|| from the noontide sultriness,|| 
Couched^]" 1 1 among fallen columns|| in the shade] | 
Of ruined walls|| that had survived the names|| 
Of those |.| who reared them.|| By his sleeping side|| 
Stood camels|| grazing, || and some goodly steeds 
Were fastened! | near a fountain ;|| and a man 
Clad j in a flowing garb| did watch || the while,**] j 
While many | of his tribe | slumbered around, || 
And they were canopied || by the blue sky 
So cloudless, clear, and purely beautiful, || 
That God alone was to be seen in heaven. "|| 

" Who shall attempt I with wandering feet | 

The dark, unfathomed, infinite abyss,ff|| 
And through the palpable obscure fj|| find out 
His uncouth way,|| or spread his airy flight 
Upborne] | with indefatigable wings, j| 
Over the vast abrupt %§\\ e'er he arrive]] 
The happy isle?"^j|| 



* For himself. t That crowded. 

X Of in the sense of from: "from all persons." 
I Last image, (i. e., representation — dream — vision. 
\ Couched is an adj. and belongs to "he" in the section. "He lay," 
etc. Or supply the words, " and he was couched," making a new sec. 
** During the while. tt Attempt to explore the dark, etc. 

XX "Obscure" for " obscurity." % Abrupt, in the sense of "abruptness" 
til At the happy isle. 



RHETORICAL RULES, 

FOR THE FORMATION OF SECTIONS AND SENTENCES. 



Note. — No errors are of more frequent occurrence than those of 
arrangement, by giving the complementary sections a wrong relation 
or position; and this is an evil the more necessary to be considered in 
this work, as all other authors have touched so lightly upon it that 
scholars generally have but a meager idea of the subject. The rela- 
tion of the complement to the subject or predicate is little understood, 
even by professed grammarians, and the complement and section are not 
described in any of the grammars extant. In the following exercises 
the sections which should follow each other are designated by the 
letters. Bring the two a s, Us, c's, etc., together, and place the inter- 
vening section in its proper place. 

Kule I. — Every secondary section must be 
placed near its primary, and, if possible, should 
follow that word in its primary section to which 
it holds a relation ; thus, it is better to say, " All 
things in this world must eventually perish," 
than " All things must eventually perish in this 
world;" because the section, "in this world" 
holds an adjective relation to the noun things, 
rather than an adverbial relation to perish. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Noah* for his godliness, a and Ms family, were the only 
persons preserved from the flood. A great stone that I 
happened to find. , & after a long search, h by the seashore* 
served for an anchor. And how can brethren hope to 
partake of their parent's blessing, c that curse each other. f 
It is your light fantastic fools d who have neither heads 
nor hearts, d of both sexes, % who, by dressing their bodies 
out of all shape, § render themselves ridiculous. Aure- 



* Adv. rel. to find: or, if this section has an adj. rel. to search, the 
sentence is correct as it stands. 

t Adj. rel. to brethren. J Adj. rel. to fools. 

§ Adv. rel. to render ; and may stand as it is. 

(205) 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

lian defeated** the Marcomanni, a fierce and terrible na- 
tion of Germany, that had invaded Italy, e in three several 
engagements* They slew f both him and his son, whom 
he had made his partner in the empire, f without any op- 
position.^ The senate of Eome ordered that no part 
should be rebuilt of it ; it was demolished to the ground, 
so that travelers are unable to say where Carthage 
stood, 9 at this day.% Upon the death of Claudius, the 
young emperor, Nero, pronounced his funeral oration, 
and he h was canonized among the gods h who scarcely de- 
served the name of man. 

Obs. 1. It must be observed that, in many cases, a 
secondary section is separated from its primary section 
by an intervening secondary section, which has a closer 
union or relation thereto. It has already been shown 
that, in some instances, several secondary sections follow 
one another in succession, each having a relation to the 
same primary ; as, " God, who spake, at sundry times, in 
divers manners in times past, unto the fathers, by the pro- 
phets." Here, each of these sections holds a separate 
adverbial relation to the verb spake. In such cases 
there is no particular order to be observed, as it is 
equally correct to say, " who spake in times past, unto 
the fathers, in divers manners, at sundry times, by 
the prophets," or " who spake by the prophet^ in divers 
manners, at sundry times, in times past, unto the fathers." 

Secondary sections, of a conjunctive relation, are some- 
times placed at a great distance from their primary, in- 
asmuch as the intervening sections do not give a false 
construction to the sentence, since they are, generally, 
sections of an adjective or adverbial relation, and as such, 
naturally hold a place nearer their primary than sections 
of merely a conjunctive relation. It should be the aim 
of the student, when writing, to express his thoughts 
with all possible perspicuity; hence, long sentences 

* Adv. rel. to defeated. t Adv. rel. to slew. 

X Adv. rel. to say. $ Adj. rel. to he. He, who scarcely, etc. 



RHETORICAL RULES. 207 

should be avoided ; for, unless one be gifted with an un- 
usual memory, he will lose the connection between the 
different members of the sentence, especially if the in- 
tervening sections do not follow in the natural order 
which their relation would indicate ; and thus the sense 
becomes obscured, if not totally lost. In all long sen- 
tences, the student should not only observe the proper y 
position of every section, but of every word in the sec- 
tion ; and great care should be taken to use pronouns 
and verbs of the same person and number as fheir ante- 
cedents or subjects.* Nouns in apposition should, if 
possible, be not only of the same case, but of the same 
number, in order that the verb to which they are both 
nominative may not sound harsh, which it always does 
when one is singular and the other plural. Conjunc- 
tions should also connect the same moods and tenses of 
verbs, etc., according to Eule XV, on p. 172. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Let every one treasure up these lessons of charity and 
benevolence, which never fail to add happiness to the 
bestower ; and honesty and integrity also.f To be mod- 
erate in our views, and proceeding temperately in the 
pursuit of them, is the best way to insure success. By 
forming themselves on fantastic models, and ready to vie 
with one another in the reigning follies, the young be- 
gin with being ridiculous, and ending in vice and immor- 
ality. !N~o person could speak stronger on this subject, 
nor behave nobler than our young advocate, for the 
cause of toleration. J But Thomas, one of the twelve, 



* See Rule VIII, page 156, and Rule IX, page 160. 

t This implenary section, commencing with the conjunction and, is 
entirely out of place, unless we use after it a qualifying phrase, in 
contrast to that which precedes. Correct by saying, " Lessons of char- 
ity, benevolence, honesty, and integrity, which never fail," etc. The 
sentence may also be corrected in .various other ways. 

% Various errors in this sentence. Adjectives are used for adverbs, 
and the sections at the close of the sentence are out of their place. 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

called Didymus,* was not with them. Truth and sober- 
ness are the test of honesty. The evidence of his guilt 
were his dogged silence and his defiant attitude. Such 
misdemeanors are a vice which all should avoid. 

Obs. 2. By the improper construction of sentences, 
an ambiguity sometime arises, against which the student 
should carefully guard. Avoid also the repetition of the 
same word in the same or consecutive sentences, unless 

for the sake of emphasis, or contrast. 

• 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
Tou suppose him younger than I.f Belisarius was 
general of all the forces under the Emperor Justinian 
the first, a man of rare valor.J Lisias promised his 
father that he would never abandon his friends.§ In- 
temperance is a growing vice, and intemperance should 
be shunned. I visited the community once, and found 
it a very industrious community; in fact I know of no 
community more industrious, «or more deserving of our 
high esteem than that community. 

Obs. 3. Tautology, or the repetition of a word or idea 
under a new form of expression, should also be avoided. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

It should ever be your constant study to do good. He 
plunged down\\ into # the water. After he sat down,*ft he 
rose up and departed. You must return back again soon. 



* Didymus is in apposition to Thomas, and should immediately fol- 
low that word. 

tThe ambiguity arises from an ellipsis of the verb after {he pro- 
noun, i" — "younger than lam" or "than I do suppose" etc. 

J Belisarius was the "man of rare valor;" hence this qualifying 
phrase should follow Belisarius — "Belisarius, a man of rare," etc. 

$ " Lysias said I will never abandon your friends " — or — " my 
friends." 

|| Such tautological expressions are often used, especially in poetry— 
they can always be parsed, but are, nevertheless, contrary to the 
genius of the English language. 

IT "To sit down" and "to rise up," may not be considered as very 
improper. Custom has sanctioned the use of the superfluous ad- 
verbs. *" . 






RHETOItfCAL RULES. 209 

He repeated the words again* We descended dozen 
from the mountain. 'We found nobody else but him in 
the room. He raised up his arm. 

Kule II. — Every complete sentence or para- 
grapht must contain a sentensic section. 

[Note. — There is little possibility of the student's falling into the 
error of constructing sentences composed of insentensic sections only, 
inasmuch as they could not be made to express any definite idea.] 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

In the room. J Upon the table. J When I have fin- 
ished my lesson. J Then he sat down.J Being unable 
to reply .J To die, to sleep no more.§ 

Obs. 1. The replies to questions are generally insen- 
tensic sections, but in such cases the primary and sen- 
tensic sections to which they relate are implied, having 
been expressed in the question. 

EXAMPLES. 
[Supply the ellipses in the secondary sections.] 
Where did you Pay the book? On the table ?|| Whom 
did you see ? Your uncle. What are you studying 
now ? Grammar, arithmetic, and geography. 

Kule III. — A negative sentence or section 
should employ but one word of negation. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

I have looked for the book, and I can't find it nowhere. 
There wasn't nobody present when I entered. It was 



* The prefix " re" signifies again ; " de" signifies down ; ascend should 
not be used with up ; "pre " signifies before. 

t A paragraph is a collection of sentences, describing any one par- 
ticular subject, or branch of a subject. A paragraph should comprise* 
all the descriptions of a subject that are closely allied, or that have, as 
it were, a tendency to one a»cl the same end. 

t Supply any sentensic section agreeable to the general sense ; as, 
" John is in the room," etc. 

gThis is not an insentensic section; as the omission of either the 
noun or verb does not constitute an insen. sec. 

|| A secondary section, adverbial relation to lay. 

18 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

so dark I couldn't see nothing at all. "Won't nobody 
come to my assistance? He could not solve the riddle 
by no means. He would n't never return. 

Obs. 1. There are many words, not absolutely nega- 
tive, but which denote possibility or impossibility, prob- 
ability or improbability, that require no other negative. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

I do not think the w r ater is hardly warm enough yet.* 
He can not, in strict justice, be scarcely called a man of 
integrity. There were not but five men present.f The 
poor man was not scarcely able to move. 

Obs. 2. When not signifies neither, we should use nor 
after it; thus, " It is not very cold, nor very warm." 
But when either is implied after not, we should make use 
of or instead of nor; thus, "He could not be induced 
(either) to remain where he was or (not nor) to go 
home." J 

EXAMPLES EOR CORRECTION. 

He told me he could not go to-day or to-morrow. I 
could not find him in this room or that. I was unable 
to find him in this room nor that.§ I will not tell you, 
or give you the slightest clue to the desired information. 
He assured me he would not be able to visit my aunt 
nor uncle during vacation. He did not call my attention 
to the fact that we were falling nor sliding down into 
the pit. She was never || known to smile from that 
moment, or to mingle again in society. He is not so 
eminent or so much esteemed as he thinks himself. She 
was seldom || found at home, of was she ever known to 
keep her house in order. 

• This form of expression is very common, and yet it is obviously 
incorrect, for the use of the negative denies the possibility of the fact, 
when the intention is to establish that possibility or probability. 

f "Not but" forms an affirmation; thus, "He could not but see it" — 
i. e., "He could not fail to see it," or, " He certainly must have seen it." 
A strong affirmation. 

t We should always endeavor to express ourselves in plain and un- 
mistakable language. In such cases as the above, the word either 
should be expressed, not implied. 

§ The word either is understood before in. 

1 Other negatives beside not follow the rule. 



: 



RHETORICAL RULES. 211 

Obs. 3. There are various forms of expression in which 
we are apt unconsciously to employ double negatives, or 
a negative and some word of possibility \ as scarcely, seldom, 
etc.; which modes of speech it should be the constant 
study of the student to avoid, using his judgment and 
taste in determining whether the negative form should 
be used or not. 

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 

He could scarcely read nor write. There was little of 
the scholar nor gentleman about him. I have not been 
able to find the word in Yirgil or Caesar* There is 
nothing genial or nothing attractive in the place.f There 
was no more bread or provision. There was nothing 
more that we could do nor say to relieve the unfortunate 
man. % 

Rule IV. — Avoid the too frequent use of the 



* It seems very often a matter of indifference whether we employ 
the negative or positive conjunction. If we supply either, and retain 
the first negative, we should use or; "either in Virgil or Caesar." But 
if we use neither in the place of the first negative, we should use nor ; 
"neither in Virgil nor Ctesar/' We may say, "She was §eldom found 
at home, or was she ever known to keep," etc.; or we may say, " She 
was seldom found at home, nor," etc. The meaning of the expression 
will be the same in either case. 

t It is well to observe that or generally indicates the possibility or 
probability of the truth of the assertion contained in one of the sec- 
tions which it connects ; thus, the above sentence would seem to indi- 
cate that there teas nothing genial, OR there ivas nothing attractive; i. e., if 
there was nothing genial, still there might have existed something 
attractive, and vice versa; but this is not the probable intention of the 
sentence: hence, it would be better to say, "There was nothing genial 
nor attractive ;" or, " there was neither any thing genial nor attractive ;" 
or, " there was nothing that was either genial or attractive." Either 
of these forms of expression would immediately convey the idea that 
neither of these attributes existed at the place, though the preference 
should be given to the first, two. 

X When the first negative occurs in one section, and a second nega- 
tive is used in the following section, the expression is wrong; for the 
word either is then understood, and should be followed by or; as, 
"there was nothing that was either genial or attractive;'' "there was 
nothing more that we could do or say." " He assured me that he 
would be unable to visit either my uncle or aunt during the vacation." 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

circumflex course, particularly in narrative, descrip- 
tive, or simple discourse., 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Him I have just sent to the grocery for provisions, and 
her I have sent into the country. Them he endeavored 
to conciliate, by large rewards promising to them, and 
by granting that they their own fields might cultivate. 
A fresh wind arising, my back I turned upon the desolate 
beach, and springing into my bark, the unhappy island I 
left forever. 

Obs. 1. Nevertheless, in poetry and in animated dis- 
course, the circumflex course is used with much beauty 
of effect. There are also many forms of expression, 
even in the most common-place language, in which we 
should always use the circumflex course ; such as, when 
the relative pronoun is employed in the accusative, or 
when, in reply to a question, the accusative is first men- 
tioned for the sake of emphasis, etc., etc. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
'This is the very man I met whom at Paris. This is 
the field I have sold which to your father. Where is our 
dog? I have just killed the dog* And how about your 
obligations? I have cancelled my obligations. f Several 
men there were who entered the room with us.J 

Rule V. — An implenary section is allowable 
when it requires the repetition of a word to make 
it plenary, or when the sense is not obscured by 
the ellipsis. § 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
By presumption and by vanity we provoke enmity and 
we incur contempt. They must be punished and they shall 

* It is of little consequence whether we use the direct course or the 
circumflex in this case. 

t It will give greater force to the reply to place the object before 
the verb. "My obligations I have cancelled." 

% Impersonal verbs always require the principal nominative after 
them. § See Rule XIX, page 179, 






RHETORICAL RULES. 213 

be punished. We succeeded, but they did not succeed. 
These counsels were the dictates of virtue and the dic- 
tates of true honor. Genuine virtue supposes our benevo- 
lence to be strengthened and to be confirmed by principle. 

Obs. 1. But when an omission of any word or words 
would obscure the sense or render the expression inele- 
gant, we should make the section plenary. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

• 

That is a property; most men have or may attain * 
Then stood there up one in the council, a Pharisee, 
named Gamaliel, a doctor of the law, had in reputation 
among all the people, and commanded to put the apostles 
forth a little space. Neither has he nor any other per- 
sons suspected this deceit.f They now smiled at that 
which they were alarmed before.J There is nothing we 
are so much deficient in as knowledge of ourselves. 

Rule VI. — Whenever figurative expressions are 
employed, care should be taken to introduce them 
at the proper time and in an appropriate manner : 
all the parts of a figure should accord, and in no 
case should we introduce a figure, and immedi- 
ately abandon it for the literal expression ; thus, 
it would be improper to say, " The Leviathan bat- 
tled long against the waves, and eventually sailed 
safely into port," because we first introduce a 
figure by representing the vessel as a combatant 
warring against the waves, and then dropping the 
figure, w r e represent the vessel in the light of any 
other boat, sailing into port. We should say, 
" The Leviathan battled long (or a long^ time) 



* Attain is an intransitive verb, and requires no object. We should 
say, " a property most men have, or to which they may attain." 

t "Nor have any other persons;" verbs must agree with their nomi- 
natives, etc. 

t " At that about which," etc., as alarmed is intransitive and can not 
govern an object. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

against the waves, but eventually conquered and 
marched into (or entered) the port in safety and 
triumph." 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

" And on his knees, 

That shook like tempest-stricken mountain trees, 

His heavy head descended sad and low 

Like a high city, smitten by the blow 

Which secret earthquake strikes, and toppling, falls 

With all its arches, towers and cathedrals 

In swift and unconjectured overthrow.* 

" To take up arms against a sea of troubles." f 



11 As glorious 



As is a messenger from heaven, 
Unto the white, upturned, wond'ring eyes 
Of mortals that fall back to gaze on him, 
When he bestrides the lazy pacing clouds, 
And sails upon the bosom of the air." 

Rule VII. — In using hyperboles, care should 
be taken not to introduce improbable exaggera- 
tion ; nor to employ them in simple or common 
descriptions. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
He moves slower than a snail. We rode quicker than 
lightning. His muscles were harder than a rock, more 
vigorous than steel, and more powerful than an engine. 

" I found her on the floor, 

In all the storm of grief, yet beautiful ! 
JPouring forth tears at such a lavish rate, 
That, was the world, on tire, they might have drowned 



The wrath of heaven and quenched the mighty ruin" 



* This figure is badly introduced. We can not, conceive any resem- 
blance between a man's "descending head " and the " swift and uncon- 
jectured overthrow" of some high' city, with all its towers, arches, and 
cathedrals, by a secret earthquake. 

t This is called mixed metaphor, in which two metaphors are made 
to meet on one subject. 

X To drown the wrath of heaven or to quench a mighty ruin would 
require a greater effort than is possessed, we fear, by any modern poet 



RHETORICAL RULES. 215 

Rule VIII. — Care should be taken in construct- 
ing a climax to preserve the natural order of gra- 
dation, placing the more insignificant ideas first, 
and closing with the grander and higher concep- 
tions. 

The following, from Milton's Paradise Lost, is a fine example of the 
construction of a climax: 

Now glowed the firmament 



With living sapphires : Hesperus, that led 
The starry host, rode brightest, till the moon, 
Rising in clouded majesty, at length, 
Apparent queen, un vailed her peerless light, 
And, o'er the dark, her silver mantle threw.' , 

First, the stars (sapphires) are seen shedding an equal light; then 
Hesperus (the evening star) "rode brightest" and held brief sway; 
"till the moon, rising in clouded majesty," appeared, queen of the 
night, " unvailed her peerless light, and o'er the dark her silver man- 
tle threw." This is one of the prettiest figures in the language; and, 
besides being a climax, is a metaphor, in which the stars represent 
the people or commonality. Hesperus then appears as a ruler, like a 
duke or governor; while the moon is made to represent the queen, 
majestic ruler over all. 



METHOD OF PARSING A PROPER NAME. 

Sentence : — " George studies his lesson." 
Relation; George studies. 

2. George — is a noun, name of a person; 
proper, an appropriated name; 
masculine gender, denotes a male; 
third person spoken of; 
singular number, denotes but one ; 
nominative case to the verb studies. 

{Rule 2.) 



PROSODY. 



Prosody, from the Greek rtp6$, about, and i5fy, songs, or 
poetry, establishes laws which govern the quality, length, 
accent, and emphasis of poetical lines ; it also embraces 
the rules for punctuation. 

OF POETRY OR VERSIFICATION. 

Poetry or Verse is the arrangement of words into a 
regular succession of short and long, or of accented or 
unaccented syllables, like the measured Jbeat of a clock, 
or the tread of disciplined troops. 

This resemblance to the motion of a person in walking, has given 
to syllables when they form poetical lines, the name of feet. 

Feet are either of two or three syllables: there are 
eight kinds of feet, four of two syllables, and four of 
three, as follows : 

Dissyllable. Trissyllable. 

1. A Trochee, — 5. A Dactyl, 

2. An Iambus, «-•- 6. An Amphibrach, - - - 

3. A Spondee, - - 7. An Anapsest, - ~ - 

4. A Pyrrhic, < ' 8. A Tribrach, - ~ — 

The dash ( - ) indicates the long or accented syllables, 

and the breve ( - ) the short, or unaccented. 

A Trochee is composed of words containing syllables 
accented on the first, and every alternate syllable there- 
after, as, grateful, tuneful, malediction, feneration, etc. 

An Iambic consists of words of two, four, or six syl- 
lables, in which the accent falls on the second, fourth, 
sixth, etc., as, account, restrain, reverberate, disinterested- 
ness, etc. 

A Spondee contains a succession of two long syllables, 
as, vain, hope, gainsay, etc. 

A Pyrrhic contains two short syllables, 1 as, ever, 
wither, etc. 

A Dactyl contains a long and two short syllables, as, 
government, idleness, etc. 
(216) 



PROSODY. 217 

An Amphibrach has first a short, then a long, then 
another short syllable, as, domestic, cosmefie, etc. 

An Anapaestic foot contains three syllables, the two 
first of which are short, or unaccented, and the last ac- 
cented or long, as, overawe, understood, overhead, in the 
room, by restraint, on command, etc. 

A Tribrach has a succession of three short syllables, 
(generally preceded by a long syllable,) as, (com) -fort- 
able, (disproportionately, (considerately, etc. 

Four of the above, viz. : Trochee, Iambus, Dactyl, and 
Anapaest, are called primary, because whole compositions 
can be written in them without introducing other feet. 
The others are called secondary, being used occasionally 
to vary the monotony of regular composition. 

EXAMPLES OF VARIOUS MEASURES. 
TROCHAIC MEASURE. 
A TROCHEE AND ONE LONG SYLLABLE. TWO TROCHEES 

Tumult I cease; w* j On a I mountain | 

Sink to j peace. *-** By a | fountain. | 

TWO TROCHEES AND LONG SYLLABLE. THREE TROCHEES. 

High a | bove the | sun. w* Task a | gain re | suming, | 

See his | chariot | run. w* Midnight | oil con | suming, | 

LINES OF THREE TROCHEE FEET AND A LONG SYLLABLE. 

Lovely, | lasting | peace of | mind, w* j 
Sweet de | light of | human | kind. <^ 

LINES OF FOUR TROCHEE FEET. 

Now the I fearful | lightning | flashes, | 
And the | dreadful | thunder's j roaring ; | 
t Now the | breaking | timber | crashes — | 
Through the | seams the | waters | pouring — | 

LINES OF SIX TROCHEES. 

■ On a | mountain, | stretched be | neath a | hoary | willow, | 
Lay a | shepherd | swain and | gazed up | on the | billow. | 

LINES OF THREE TROCHEE FEET, AND OF TWO TROCHEE FEET AND A 
LONG SYLLABLE IN ALTERNATE SUCCESSION. 

On a | distant | prairie 

Where the | heather | wild w ] 

In its | quiet | beauty | 
Livedf | and| | smiled. | 

* The slur indicates the absence of a syllable. 

t It is frequently the case that one long syllable, like a prolonged 
note in music, occupies the space of a long and short one also. In 
the above we find a succession of three long syllables, the first two of 

19 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LINES OF FOUR TROCHEE FEET, AND OF THREE AND AN ADDITIONAL 
LONG SYLLABLE IN ALTERNATE SUCCESSION. 
Summer's | breath is | lightly | falling | 

On the | silent | waters | blue, ^ \ 
And the | moonbeams | bright are | sporting [ 
With the | drops of | glitt'ring* | dew.^- | 

IAMBIC MEASURE. 

LINES OF TWO IAMBIC FEET. 

We passed | the hours, | 
In sha | dy bow'rs.t | 

TWO IAMBIC FEET, AND AN ADDITIONAL SHORT SYLLABLE. 

And near | the moun- | torn, 
There gushed | a foun- | tain. 

LINES OF THREE IAMBIC FEET. 

Isles of | the south, | awake ! | 
The song | of tri- | iimph sing, | 

Let mount | and hill | and vale | 
With hal | lelu. | jas ring. 

LINES OF FOUR IAMBIC FEET. 

Thy pres [ ence, ev | erlast | ing God, | 
Wide o'er | all na | tiire spreads | abroad. | 

LINES OF FIVE FEET, CALLED PENTAMETER VERSE. 

Th&re was | a sound | of rev | elryj| by night, 

And Bel | gium's cap | ital | had gath | ered there, | etc. 

When the last line of a couplet is prolonged to twelve 
syllables, it is called Alexandrine verse. 

While thronged | the cit | izens | with ter | ror dumb, | 
Or whisp | 'ring with | white lips, | 'The foe, ) they come! ) 
they come !'' | 

Many Iambic verses terminate in a short, or unac- 
cented syllable. 

; Twas now | the hour | when night | had drlv | en, 

Her car | half round | yon sa | ble heav | en. 
Christians! I have burn'd | each 6th | er, quite | persua I ded 
That all | th' apos | ties would | have done | as they | did. 

which may be regarded either as a single Spondee foot, or as two Tro- 
chees, the second syllable of each being represented by the prolonga- 
tion of the first. 

* Two syllables are frequently contracted into one, by the elision of 
a vowel, when the second forms a Pyrrhic or Tribrach. 

t It is highly improper to introduce a word in which the accent nat- 
urally falls on the first syllable, while the nature of the verse requires 
it on the second : this, at once, changes the metrical measurement into 
prose, and yet the most distinguished poets frequently fall into this 



: 



% PROSODY. 219 

VARIOUS FORMS OF IAMBIC VERSE. 
The day | is past | and gone, | {three feet.) 
The eve | ning shades | appear, | {three feet. 
0, may | we all j remem | ber well, | [four feet.) 
The flight j of death | draws near. | {three feet.) 

Come ho | ly spir | it heav | ? nly dove [ {four feet.) 
With all | thy quick | ning pow'rs, I {three feet.) 

Kindle"- | a flame ( of su | cred love, j 
In this | cold heart | of ours. | 

Verses like the above, containing lines of four and 
three feet, alternately, were formerly written in two lines 
of seven feet each. 

ANAPJESTIC MEASURE. 

LINES OF TWO ANAP^STIC FEET. 

On the beach ] by the sea, | 
'Neath the ev | ergreen tree. | 

LINES OF THREE ANAPAESTIC FEET. 

O, ye woods, j spread your branch | es apace, | 

To your deep J est recess | es I fly; | 
I would hide | with the beasts | of the chase, | 

I would van | ish from ev | ery eye. | 

LINES OF FOUR ANAPiESTIC FEET. 

At the close | of the day, | when the ham | let is still, | 
Andt mor | tals the sweets | of fSrget | fulness | prove, j 
When nought | but the tor f rent is heard | on the hill, | 
And nought ) but the night [ ingale's song | in the grove. | 

Some lines take an additional short syllable. 
At the head | of the dan | cers, 
Stood the val | oroiis Ian | cers. 

But in such cases the second, and every succeeding 
alternate line generally lacks a short syllable. 

'Tis the voice | of the slug | gard,% 
I heard | him complain | 



* It is highly improper to introduce a word in which the accent 
naturally falls on the first syllable, while the nature of the verse re- 
quires it on the second : this, at once changes the metrical measure- 
ment into prose, and yet the most distinguished poets frequently fall 
into this error. 

t The second short syllable is wanting. See Rule at top of next page. 

J This syllable, in reality, constitutes the first short syllable in the 
next foot. If the verse were written in two lines instead of four these 
syllables would occupy their proper places. 






i 

220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. » 

You have waked | me too soon, | (/) 
I must slum J ber again. | 

Sometimes a syllable is omitted from the first foot of 

each line. 

■ 

Ye shep | herds, so cheer | fiil and gay, | 
"Whose flocks J ever care | lessly roam, [ 

And mem' | ry still hoards | 

As her rich | est of treas | wes* 

Some few | blissful mo | merits, 
Some soul [ thrilling pleas | ures* 

DACTYLIC MEASURE. 
LINES OF TWO DACTYLS. 

Take her iip [ tenderly, | 
Fashioned so | slenderly, [ 

The last measure in Dactylic verse is not always full ? 
but generally ends on the accented syllable. 

O, the deep | truth that looks | 

From those dark | eyes,t >-> ^ \ 
Soul-lit with | radiance, [ 

Caught from the | skies f ^ s —'. [ 

Sometimes an unaccented syllable opens or closes a 
line. 

Robed like an | abbess, ^ 

TheJ | snowy earth | lies,f ^ ^ \ 
WJaile the red | sundown ^ 

Fadesj | out of the | skies.f ^ ^ | 

Dactyl verse sometimes glides imperceptibly into ana- 
paestic measure. _ 






* This syllable, in reality, constitutes the first short syllable in the 
next foot. See note bottom of page 219. 

t The two other syllables that compose the foot are wanting, and if 
the poetry be set to music the absence of these syllables must be de- 
noted by appropriate rests ; or the accented syllable must be prolonged 
to the full value of the foot or measure. 

t If this word had been placed at the conclusion of the preceding 
line, (where the measure requires it, though the sense does not,) we 
should have a pure Dactyl verse, thus : 

Robed like an | abbess, the I 

Snowy earth | lies ^ w f 
While the red | sundown fades [ 

Out of the | skies ^ w. | 






PROSODY. 221 

Whirling and ] gliding, like | summer clouds, | fleet,* 
They flash | the white light | ning from gilt | tering feet; | 
The streams | hang congealed j on the face | of tlie falls, | 
Like mutef horns | of bright sil | ver hung ov | er dark walls. | 

The first line is sometimes in Dactyl, and each subse- 
quent line in Anapaest, thus : 

Nigh to a | grave that was | newly J | made ^ ^~- ] 
Leaned a? sex | ton old || | on his earth | worn spade|| J 
His work | was* done,§, [ and he paused | to wait || | 
The fun^f | eral train | through the 6 | pen gate.|| | 

It is very improper to bring unimportant words into 
the unaccented parts of a measure : this is similar to the 
introduction of words where the accent will fall on the 
unaccented syllables. This is called impossible accent, 
and is liable to occur in all kinds of verse. The follow- 
ing extracts are erroneous : 

u Of every tree that in the garden grows 
Thou mayst | freely | eat; but | of the \ tree*'* 
That knowledge hath of good and ill, eat not." 

* See note (f ) on page 220. 

t If th^se words, had been placed at the end of the preceding line, 
the verse would have been Dactyl. It is this running over of words 
from one line to another that causes the change from Dactyl to Ana- 
paest. The above may be changed to Dactyl, thus : 

Whirling and | gliding like | summer clouds | fleet, see they | 
Flash the white | lightning from | glittering feet, | and the | 
Streams hang con | gealed on the [ face of the | falls like mute j 
Horns of bright | silver hung | over dark | walls, ^ ^. | 

This, of course, destroys the rhyme, and closes the lines with unim- 
portant words, which is highly improper. 

J This is a Trochee foot, but when set to music it must be made to 
fill the same measure as a Dactyl. 

§ These two words belong to the last measure in the preceding line, 
and are so treated in the air to which they are sung, making the word 
"sexton" the first in a new Dactylic foot. 

|| These are Iambic feet, but fall into Dactylic divisions in the air. 
^f This foot may be considered a Dactyl, commencing with an unac- 
cented syllable, or as an Anapaest, having a syllable retrenched. The 
above verse, when set to music, is divided thus : 

Nigh to a | grave that was | newly | made, Leaned a ] 
Sexton | old on his | earth worn | spade, His | 
Work was | done and he | paused to | wait The | 
Funeral | train through the | open | gate. | 
Making each line wholly composed of Dactyls or Trochees; though 
each Trochee measure has the full value of a Dactylic foot. 

* :; -This line may be properly accented by making two syllables of 
the word "Mayst," thus: 

Thou may | est free | If eat ; | but of | the tree [ 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



'But the unfaithful priest, what tongue enough shall exe- 



crate ?" Pollok. 

-" Yet to*\ say truth, | too late 



I thus contest." 

~ " O, thought, 

Horrid | if true !" 

"All of | me then, shall die: let this appear." Milton. 

" Age should | fly concourse, coyer in retreat 
Defects of judgment and the will subdue." 

"Piiff'd off \ by the | first blast ['and lost | forev | er." 

Young. 
"Mix'd with [ obdu \ rate pride and steadfast hate." 

Milton. 
" AngeZs | and mm | isters | of grace | defend | us, \ 
"Thou hast | but power | over | his mor | tal bo | dy" 

Shakspeare. 

OF MIXED VERSE. 

No verse can be composed entirely of Spondee, Pyrrhic, 
Amphibrach, or Tribrach feet, but an}', or all of these 
may be introduced in other measures, to prevent monot- 
ony. Verses may. also be composed of a mixture of 
Trochee, Iambic, Dactyl, and Anapaest, some examples 
of which are subjoined the figures designate the various 
feet, thus, 1 Trochee, 2 Iambus, 5 Dactyl, 7 Anapsest^ etc., 
according to the figured arrangement on page 216. 

Not a drum 7 | was heard, 2 | nor a fun'? | ral note, 2 j 
As his corse 7 | to the ram 7 | part we hur 7 | ried* 

Not a sol 7 | dier discharged 7 | his fare 2 | well shot 2 
O'er the grave 7 | where our he 7 | ro we bur 7 | ried* 

God of the 5 | fair and 1 | open 1 | sky ^-' | 

How | glorious 5 | ly a 1 | bov.e us 1 | springs *— 'i | 

The | tented 1 | dome of | heavenly 5 | blue, ^ 7 | 
Suspen 2 | ded in 2 [ the rain 2 J bow's rings. 2 | 

Make me no 5 | gaudy 1 | chaplet; 3 | weave it of 5 ] simple 1 | flowers, 3 [ 
Seek them ins | lowly 1 | vallies, 3 | after the^ | gentle 1 | showers; 3 
Bring me no 5 | dark-eyed 1 | roses, 3 | gay in the 5 1 sunshine 1 | glowing. 3 j 
Bring me the 5 | pale moss 1 | rose bud, 3 | beneath the | fresh leaves 1 [ 
| growing. 3 | 
I say, 2 | methinks, 2 | that Phi 2 | lo-gen 2 ] itiveness 8 | 
Might meet 2 | from men 2 | a lit 2 | tie more 2 [ forgive 2 | ness. 



* Hurried and buried, and all similar terminations, should be con- 
tracted to the space or value of "a single syllable. This verse would be 
purely Anapaestic throughout, if we give to each measure its true value*. 



PUNCTUATION. 223 

KULES FOR THE COMPOSITION OF POETRY. 

Rule I. — Commence every line with a capital letter. 

Rule II. — Having established a measure, continue the 
same throughout ; though, as has been already seen, 
Dactylic verse may sometimes run into Anapasst, ^>r 
Trochee into Iambic, and vice versa. 

Eule III. — Corresponding lines should be of an even 
length ; i. e., should be composed of an even number of 
feet. In blank verse, all the lines jshould be even in 
length.* In all other poetical compositions, those lines 
which rhyme should generally be even.f 

Eule IY. — It is improper to introduce an Alexandrine 
into the middle of a stanza ; and, in general, it is wrong 
to introduce a •line containing an additional foot, .into 
any verse, unless the accompanying verses have lines 
corresponding. 

Eule V. — Avoid the use of Spondee, Pyrrhic, Amphi- 
brach and Tribrach feet, particularly in pieces intended 
for music. 

Eule YI. — Do not close a line in Iambic (or Trochee) 
with a short syllable, nor a line in Anapaest (or Dactyl) 
with two short syllables, and commence the following 
line also with a short syllable, for this would make, in 
the former case, a Pyrrhic, and, in the latter, a Tribrach. 



PUNCTUATION. 

The principal divisions of a sentence, as considered 
by rhetoricians, are the Comma, Semicolon, Colon and 
Period. 

The Period is the whole sentence, complete in itself, 
wanting nothing to make full and perfect sense, and not 
connected in any way with a subsequent sentence. 

* If a paragraph, in blank verse, breaks off with a short line, the 
line that follows should commence where the other ends; thus: 

Judge. — Therefore lay bare your bosom. 

Shylock. — Ay, his breast: 

So says the bond; does it not, noble judge? — Shakspeare. 

t There are some exceptions to this, particularly in Alexandrine 
verse, and in stanzas where the lines are nearly all of irregular 
length. 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Colon is a secondary sentence, containing some- 
thing explanatory to that which precedes, and which is 
already complete in grammatical construction. The 
Colon may sometimes contain a personal pronoun, the 
antecedent to which is in the preceding sentence. 

?he Semicolon contains that part of a sentence which 
commences with a conjunction or personal pronoun; and 
is a minor division of a sentence, in which the gram- 
matical construction is not fully complete. 

The Comma includes the principal secondary sections, 
which comprise the" subdivision of the sentence. 

Grammarians have followed this division of the rheto- 
ricians, and have appropriated to each of these divisions 
its mark or point. 

RULES FOR PUNCTUATION. 
OF THE COMMA. 

Eule I.-»Use a Comma to separate the principal sec- 
tions of a sentence. 

Example. — By skill and resolution, by caution and circumspection, 
by foresight and by penetration, I brought the enterprize to a fortu- 
nate conclusion. 

Eule II. — A nominative should never be separated 
from the verb to which it belongs by a comma, unless a 
secondary section intervenes, and breaks the connection. 

Examples. — God is love. Heaven hides the book of- fate. Heaven, 
from all creatures, hides the book of fate. 

Eule III. — When, however, several nominatives fol- 
low in succession, or are used in apposition, they should 
be separated from each other, but not from the verb, by 
commas ; thus : 

" Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy blast the prospect of many 
a youth." 

" Discomposed thoughts, agitated passions, and a ruffled temper 
poison every pleasure of life." 

[Note. — The use of the comma, in this case, is to represent the 
omission of the verb; thus, -'Birds, bats, and beetles fly," i. e., "Birds 
(fly)) Dats (fly)i »nd beetles fly." "Discomposed thoughts (poison, 
etc.,) agitated passions (poison, etc.,) and a ruffled temper poison," 
etc.] 

Eule IV. — When several words, all being the same 
part of speech, and each holding, separately, a relation 



PUNCTUATION. 225 

to the same word, follow one another in succession, they 
should be separated from each other (but not from the word 
to which they belong) by commas.* 

Examples. — " To live soberly, righteously, and piously, comprehends 
the whole of our duty." 

" Man fearing, serving, knowing and loving his Creator.' 7 » 

"Nor cast one longing, ling'ring look behind." 

" The sun, earth's sun, and moon and stars had ceased 

To number seasons, days, and months, and years." 

" When first on this delightful land he spreads 

His orient beams on herb, tree, fruit, and flower." 

" To relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the inno- 
cent, are noble employments." 

M Plain, honest truth requires no coloring." 

•"A good, wise, and just king will endeavor to redress the griev- 
ances, wrongs, and {troubles of his people." 

Rule V. — AVhen a secondary section of an adjective 
relation immediately follows the noun to which it be- 
longs, it is considered as part of the logical subject, and 
should not be separated from it, as this would virtually 
separate the noun from its verb.-)" 

Example. — u The great end of a good education is to form a reason- 
able man." 

Rule VI. — When a section of an adverbial relation 
immediately follows the verb to which it belongs, no 
point is required ; as, 

" With joy shall ye draw water out of the wells of salvation.'' 

Rule VII. — But when a section, not having an adjec- 
tive relation, follows a noun, or when any o£her than an 
adverbial section follows a verb, it should be separated 
from the main section by commas before and after it. 
And, in genial, when a secondary section is out of its 
place, producing a broken section or a circumflex course, 
that section should be separated from the others by 
commas. 

Examples. — " Epicurus, we are told, left behind him three hundred 
volumes of his works." 

* Because each Comma is used to denote the ellipsis of the verb, 
noun, pronoun, preposition, etc., to which the w r ord belongs, as in the 
previous Rule; thus, "A true, (man) honest, (man) and sober man will 
try at all times to fulfill his duty, (to fulfill) his -obligations, and (to 
fulfill) his promises." 

f The relative pronoun and participle form exceptions, which will 
be treated of in separate rules. 



226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"She let concealment, like a worm V tK bud, 

Feed on her damask cheek." 
" In arts, long since, has Britain been renown'd; 
In arms, high honored, and in letters, crown'd." 
" Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you," {circumflex 
course.) 

Kule VIII. — When two or more secondary adjective 
sections follow a noun, or when tw T o or more secondary 
adverbial sections follow a verb, they should be separated 
from each other by commas, unless connected by a con- 
junction. 

Examples. — " His hopes for saving his credit, for redeeming his 
character, for obtaining redress, were blasted." 

" The man of virtue and of honor will be respected and esteemed." 
" The Christian religion is full of beauty, of purity and love." 
"He was sunk deep in sin, degradation andcrime.'* 
" He paced over the floor, in silence." t 

Eule IX. — When conjunctions connect words only, no 
point is required between them. 

Examples. — "Truth is fair and artless." "We must be wise or 
foolish." 

Eule X. — When the conjunction connects sections, it 
should be 'preceded by a comma. 

Examples. — "Romances may be said to be miserable rhapsodies, or% 
dangerous incentives to evil." 

" Virtue is not rest, i)ut action." % 

"Some people are impolite, because they do not know the world." 

"A man of sense soon perceives, ivhether his company be acceptable 
or not." £ \ 

" Virtue is so- amiable, that even the vicious admire it." § 

Rule XI. — The comma frequently indicates the ellipses 
of a verb or noun.|| 

Examples. — " The aim of orators is victory ; of hi^orians, truth ; 
of poets, admiration." 

"He lives at the corner of Main,1f and Center st." 

* This rule also applies to secondary adjective sections. 

t But we may omit the comma when each secondary section has a 
relation to that word which immediately precedes it, thus : " He was 
famed for the observance of small things in his intercourse with 
mankind." 

% The principal part of the section is elliptical, having been already 
given. 

# The comma may be frequently omitted before whether, if, that, and 
some other conjunctions, which seem to bind the sense too closely to 
admit a pause. 

|j See Rule III and IV. % That is, "Main street 



PUNCTUATION. 227 

Eule XII. — When a secondary section, commencing 
witk a relative pronoun or a participle, intervenes be- 
tween the nominative and verb (thus making a broken 
section), it must be included in commas. 

" A man, who is of a detracting and malicious spirit, will miscon- 
strue the most innocent words.' 7 * 

11 His talents, formed for great enterprises, coul$ not fail to render 
him conspicuous." 

"What can be said of those, who, intoxicated with pleasures, become 
giddy and insolent?" 

Eule XIII. — When the relative immediately follows 
its antecedent, and does not intervene in a broken sec- 
tion, no comma is required. 

Examples. — "This was the man who betrayed him." "You have 
brought me every thing that I can wish." 

Eule XIV. — Nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc., joined in 
pairs by a conjunction, are separated in pairs by commas. 

Examples. — "Interest and ambition, honor and shame, friendship 
and enmity, gratitude and revenge,! are the prime movers of all pub- 
lic transactions." 

"Vicissitudes J of good and evil, of trials and consolations, t fill up 
the life of man." 

" Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uniform and con- 
sistent." 

"Whether he moves or stands, speaks or holds his peace, eats or 
drinks, laughs or weeps, sleeps' or wakes, he is watched with admi- 
ration." 

Eule XV. — Nouns in apposition, that denote the name 
of but one person, should not be separated by a comma. 
Examples. — " The emperor Antonius wrote an excellent book." 
"John Quincy Adams was the President." 

Eule XVI. — The case independent should, generally, 
be separated from the section by a comma. § 

Examples. — " My son, give me thy heart." 

"I am obliged to you, my friends, || for your many favors." 

Eule XVII. — The absolute case, together with the 
section in which it occurs, should be marked by the 
comma. 



• See examples under Rule VII. 

t See Rule II. The nominative must not be separated from its verb. 
t See Rule V, and VIII. ? See Rule L and XLV. 

|| See Rule I, and also page 184. The clause containing the case in- 
dependent forms a separate section. 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Examples. — " The general being killed, the army was routed." "His 
father dying, he succeeded to the estate." " At length, their ministry 
performed, their race well run, they left the world in peace." 

" This is the true version of the affair, Mr. Williamson to the con- 
trary notwithstanding. 

Eule XVIII. — When the infinitive immediately fol- 
lows the word to which it holds a relation, no point 
should be used ; *but if a clause or section intervenes, the 
infinitive should be preceded by a comma. 

Example. — " He was seen to enter the house." 

Eule XIX. — When a quotation, or other phrase, sec- 
tion, clause or sentence is the object (accusative) of a 
verb, such clause, section, etc., should be separated from 
the verb by a comma. 

" God said, Let there be light." 
" No, no," replied the doctor. 
- u The wages of sin is death," was the subject of his discourse.! 

Eule XX. — When two prepositions, separated by a 
clause or section, govern the same noun or pronoun, a 
comma should be placed after the first. 

Examples. — " Men are often found, not only in union with, but in op- 
position to the views and conduct of one another." 

Eule XXI. — Words that stand in opposition to, or 
contrast with one another, should be distinguished by 
the insertion of commas. 

Examples. — "Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull; 
Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing, full." J 
"Her strength, an idiot's boast; her wisdom, blind; 
Her gain, eternal loss; her hope, a dream." § 

Eule XXII. — Compound adverbs, adverbial phrases, 

and the words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, form- 
erly, now, lastly, etc., should be separated from the section, 
in which they occur, by commas. 

Examples. — "Here, all is bustle and tumult; there, all is peace and 
order." 



* Notwithstanding is a participle compounded of not, with and standing. 
Williamson, by metonomy for Williamson's account or relation, is ab- 
solute. 

t The rule also applies when the section or clause is nominative. 

X These are all implenary sections, and may be considered as 
pointed, according to Rule I, and X. \ See Rule XI. 



PUNCTUATION. 229 

u I proceed, secondly ', to state that modesty is one of the chief orna- 
ments of youth." 

"Finally, in short, in your most secret actions, imagine you have all 
the world for witnesses." 

' ; It is, nevertheless, only from the actions of men that the public can 
judge of their probity." 4 

" He is obstinate, nay, willful, if he persists." 

" Hence it is,* we can not discover the error." 

Eule XXIII. — When, however, one of these adverbs 
heads a clause, and does not intervene in a broken sec- 
tion, or interrupt the natural relation of a noun or verb, 

the comma is omitted. 

Examples.—" You are altogether at fault." 
11 We shall all meet again, hereafter." t 

" The narrative, however intemperate in point of religious zeal,J is 
accurate in point of fact." 

Eule' XXI Y. — When one or more sections intervene 
between a conjunction and the section which it connects, 
such intervening sections should be included in commas. 

Example. — " We may rest assured that, by the steady pursuit of 
knowledge, we shall be benefited." 

Eule XXY. — ]STo point should separate the nomina- 
tive from its verb, the adjective from its noun, the verb 
from its object, etc., when no word or section intervenes; 
and, in general, when any two words, that hold a relation 
to one another, are found together, in their natural order, 
no point should be used. 

Eule XXVI. — The compa is frequently omitted (con- 
trary to strict rule) before conjunctions that connect 
brief or implenary sections, or between other sections, 
when the sentences are short, and the connection of the 

sections close. 

Examples. — " The righteous shall shine as the stars." 
" Wisdom is more precious than rubies." 
"The righteous shall flourish like a palm tree." 
" I am now convinced that I was in error." 
" Blest is the man who dares approach the bow'r 
Where dwelt the muses at their natal hour." * 



* See Rule XXIII. 

t The comma is used here because the word hereafter is separated 
from its verb meet by again. 

% The commas before however and is are in accordance with Rule VII. 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

The comma is often used to denote an omission of one 
or more letters : it is then called an apostrophe, and is 
thus used : liv'd, flatfring, glisfning, won't, (for will not,') 
can't, (for can not,) etc. . The apostrophe is also used to 
denote the possessive case of nouns. 

Double commas, and inverted commas a»e used for 
quotations; thus, "Let there be light." Double quota- 
tions are marked thus, " He said, 'Let there be light.' " 
Double commas are sometimes used ( Six pounds per day. 
to denote a repetition above; thus: { Five " " " 

OF THE SEMICOLON. 

Rule XXYII. — When conjunctions connect sections 
of considerable length, the semicolon should be used.* 

Example. — " The conveniences of fraud are short, but. the inconveni- 
ences are lasting; for, if a person be once detected in uttering a false- 
hood, he will not be believed again." 

Eule XXVIII. — When a personal pronoun commences 
a secondary section, it should be preceded by a semi- 
colon.f 

Examples. — " Send, therefore, to Joppa, and call hither Simon, whose 
surname is Peter; he is lodged in the house of one Simon, a tanner." 

" But Peter took him up, saying, Stand up ; /, myself, also, am a 
man." 

Eule XXIX. — When, however, the personal pronoun' 
is preceded by a conjunction or other connective word, 
the section in which it occur^ should be separated from 
that which precedes it by a comma, in accordance with 
Eule I, X, and XI ; or "by a semicolon, in accordance 
with Eule XXVII. 

Examples. — "Am I, therefore, become your enemy, because I tell you 
the truth?" 

" I foresaw the Lord always *before my face ; for he is on my right 
hand, that I should not be moved." 

Eule XXX. — Brief, simple sentences, in which the 
verb is understood, and represented by a comma, accord- 



* In many cases it is difficult to decide whether we should use a 
comma or semicolon; and, perhaps, it is of little consequence which 
we employ: let the sense decide. 

t But should not be headed by a capital letter. 



PUNCTUATION. 231 

ing to Rule XI, are separated from each other by semi- 
colons. 

Examples. — " Earth's cup 

Is poison'd ; her renown, most infamous ; 

Her gold, seem as it may, is really dust; 

Her titles, sland'rous names ; her praise, reproach ; 

Her strength, an idiot's boast; her wisdom, blind; 

Her gain, eternal loss ; her hope, a dream ; 

Her love, her friendship, enmity with God." 
"Honor gives us happiness; virtue, delight; contentment, peace; * 
and religion, tranquility. " 

Rule X£Xl. — Short sentences, in which the verbs are 
expressed, are sometimes joined by semicolons, when 
they relate to one subject. 

Examples. — " At thirty, man suspects himself a fool; 
Knows it at forty, and reforms his plan ; 
At fifty, chides his infamous delay ; 
Pushes his prudent purpose to resolve; 
In all the magnanimity of thought 
Resolves ; and re-resolves ; then dies the same." 

Rule XXXII. — Secondary, implenary sections are 
often preceded by the semicolon. 

Examples. — " His mind seemed utterly unbalanced, teeming with 
rich thoughts, and overbearing impulses; the sport of the strangest 
fancies and the strongest passions ; bound down by no habit, re- 
strained by no principle; a singular combination of great conceptions 
and fantastic caprices; of manly dignity and childish folly; of noble 
feeling, and of babyish weakness." 

OF THE COLON. 

Rule XXXIII. — The colon may be placed after a sen- 
tence, when a second sentence immediately follows, by 
way of illustration. 

Example. — Suspect a tale-bearer, and never trusfliim with thy se- 
crets who is fond of entertaining thee with those of another : no wise 
man will put good liquor in a leaky vessel." 

Rule XXXIV. — The* colon is often used instead of the 
semicolon to connect consecutive simple sentences.* 

* Some writers use the colon almost indiscriminately for the semi- 
colon, before conjunctions, relative pronouns, participles, etc. It is a 
good rule, never to use a colon when a semicolon makes clear the dis- 
tinction ; and, above all, never let a colon intervene between the sec- 
tions of a sentence. 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Examples. — " And Luxury, within, 

Poured out her glitt'ring stores: the canvas smooth, 
With glowing life protuberant, to the view 
Embodied rose: the statue seemed to breathe, 
And soften into flesh: beneath the touch 
Of forming art, imagination flush'd." 

" Be wise, 



Ye fools ! be of an understanding heart : 
Forsake the wicked : come not near his house : 
. Pass by : Make haste : depart, and turn away :" 

Eule XXXV. — The propriety of using a colon or 
semicolon is sometimes determined ~by a exjunction's 
being expressed or understood ; if expressed, we use the 
semicolon ; if understood, the colon. 

Examples. — " Do not, flatter yourself with'the hope of perfect happi- 
ness : there is no such thing in the world. [ — of perfect happiness ; 
for there is no, etc.] 

" Insult not another, because he lacks a talent which you possess : 
he may have others which you lack. [ — which you possess ; since he 
may, etc.] 

XXXYI. — The colon is often used between long sec- 
tions, when, according to Eule XXYII, we would use a 
semicolon, if the sections were shorter. 

Examples. — " In misfortunes we often mistake dejection for con- 
stancy : we bear them without daring to look on them." 

"Visits made and received are usually an intolerable consumption 
of time: unless prudently ordered, they 9 are, for the most part, spent 
in vain and unprofitable discourses." 

Eule XXXVII. — A colon is sometimes used before a 
quotation, instead of a comma, particularly if the quota- 
tion be adduced as an example. Sometimes, also, the 
dash accompanies the colon. 

Examples. — " Milton, in his beautiful description of Eve, says : 
' Grace was in all her steps, heaven in her eyes ; 
In all her gestures, dignity and^ove.' " 

"Pollok begins his 'Course of Time' thus: 
1 Eternal Spirit ! God of truth ! to whom 
All things seem as they are.' " 



* Circumflex course ; if made direct, they would immediately follow 
the colon. 



PUNCTUATION. 233 

OF THE PERIOD. 

Bule XXXVIII. — Use a period at the close of a full 
and perfect sentence. 

Example. — " It is the part of a wise man to see misfortunes, and to 
prevent them before they come ; * of a valiant man, to struggle well 
against them when they do come." 

Eule XXXIX. — Many writers use the period, instead 
of the colon or semicolon, between short, simple sen- 
tences, f 

Examples. — " Children, obey your parents. Honor your father and 
your mother. A wise son heareth his father s instruction." 
" Do not forget. This visitation 
Is but to whet thy almost blunted purpose. 
But % look! amazement on thy mother sits. 
O, step between her and her fighting soul. 
Conceit in weakest bodies, strongest works. 
Speak to her, Hamlet." 

Eule XL. — Periods are placed after abbreviations. 
In such cases they are not considered as marks of punc- 
tuation, and the usual points should be placed after all 
abbreviated words, unless they occur at the close of a 
sentence. 

Examples. — " On the fifth of Aug., 1842,g he commenced the attack." 
" He arrived on the 10th of Dec. ; but returned almost immediately." 
" The soldiers, officers, privates, etc., all united in the attack." " He 
purchased the sugar per cwt. 

OF THE INTERROGATION POINT. 

Eule XLI. — The note of interrogation marks a ques- 
tion, and should be placed only at the close of a com- 
plete sentence. 

Example. — " And which of you, by taking thought, can add to his 
stature, one cubit? 

* See Rule XXXI. 

t And some use the comma, as in the following, from Pollok's 
11 Course of Time: " — 

" Satan raged loose, Sin had her will, and Death 
Enough. Blood trode upon the heels of blood, 
Revenge, in desprate mood, at midnight met 
Revenge, War brayed to War, Deceit deceived 
Deceit, Lie cheated Lie." 
But this use of the comma should be avoided: use the semicolon. 

X Many sentences commence with the conjunctions but, and, etc. 
See page 140 and 141. 
§ Figures should be punctuated as well as words. 

20 



234 ENGLJSH GRAMMAR. 

Eule XLII. — "When two or three questions, connected 
by conjunctions, follow one another in succession, they 
may be separated from each other by a semicolon, the 
interrogation point being placed after the last. 

Examples. — "Hath a dog money; and is it possible 

A cur can lend three thousand ducats?" 
" Say, shall we wind 



Along the stream, or walk the smiling mead; * 
Or court the forest glade, or wander wild 
Among the waving harvest?" 

Eule XLIII. — Sometimes questions succeed in pairs v 
the interrogation following each pair. 

Examples. — " Be thou a spirit blest, or goblin dam'd ? 

Bringst with thee sweet airs from heav'n, or blasts from hell? 
Be thy intents wicked, or charitable?" 
" Shall we yield to the occasion, or shall we struggle against mis> 
fortune ? Shall we sit down in despair, or rise up with determina- 
tion? Does victory come to the indolent, or to the brave?" 

Eule XLfV.— The interrogation should not be used 
when it is only said a question has been asked. 

■ Examples. — " They asked me why I wept." 
M He inquired what road he should take to the town." 
" And they asked him, 'What then? Art thou Elias?'"f 

OF THE EXCLAM'ATION POINT. 

Rule XLV. — The exclamation point should be placed 
after words denoting surprise, admiration, etc. ; it should, 
also, be used after ironical expressions, when they occur 
in the form of exclamations ; and, sometimes, after names 
addressed, instead of the comma. % 

Examples. — " 0, void of faith ! $ of all bad men, the worst ! 
Renowned for wisdom, by th' abuse accursed!" 

* The interrogation may be used here with equal propriety. 

t The interrogation is properly used here, since the questions are 
really asked. 

% The student should be cautioned against the too frequent use of 
the exclamation point, which, in prose, carries an air of pedantic 
bombast. It is better, even in animated poetical passages, to use the 
exclamation sparingly. 

# The exclamation point may occur anywhere in a sentence, even 
where no other point could be placed; but when it comes where other 
rules require a comma, colon, semicolon or period, such comma, colon, 
etc., must be omitted. If the exclamation point occurs in the middle 
of a sentence, the next word should not commence with a capital 
letter. 



PUNCTUATION. 235 

"Good heavens! What goblin shape is this!"* 
"O, excellent guardian of the sheep!— a wolf!" 

OF THE PARENTHESIS, f 

I^ule XLVI. — The parentheses may be used some- 
times instead of commas, to include the clause that in- 
tervenes in a broken section. 

Example. — " Did nature (lavish of her care) 

From her best pattern form you, fair?" 

Eule XLYII. — In general, parenthetical marks de- 
mand every point which would be required if the paren- 
theses were omitted. 

Examples. — " You will know by experience, (which is the best look- 
ing-glass of wisdom,J) that a private life is more pleasant and happy 
than public office." 

" The harmony, 

(What could it less, when spirits immortal sing?) 
Suspended hell." 
"And was the ransom paid? It was; and paid 
(What can exalt his bounty more!) for thee." 

" Eule XL VIII. — Parentheses are often used instead 
of brackets, § to inclose a phrase or word of explanation. 

Examples, — "The two met; and he, (Johnson,) repeated the question 
again." 

;i Death-bed charities (says Bishop Sherlock) are too much like 
death-bed repentance." 

"Let every one exert himself (or herself) to acquire a thorough 
knowledge of English language." 

OF THE DASH. 

Eule XLIX. — The dash should be used when a sen- 
tence is unfinished, and terminates abruptly; also, before 

* When a question is asked to which there is no reply, we usually 
employ the exclamation in place of the interrogation. 

t Be cautious about introducing too many parenthetical clauses, 
which are like wheels within wheels, and, when of considerable 
length, interrupt the connection of the sense, besides showing at once 
that the writer has not the art to introduce them in their proper 
places. 

X Place the proper points before (not after) each parenthesis. 

\ Brackets or Crochets [ ] are falling greatly into disuse. They 
may be employed, however, to inclose a long note or paragraph of 
explanation; to precede a word that runs over, in a line of poetry, and 
is placed above ; and to enclose any word, figure or clause that is en- 
tirely separate by itself. 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a word or phrase that forms the point of an expression; 
and it is sometimes employed to denote an omission of 
the letters in a word. 

Examples. — "I own it is in your favor, and I submit; but — " 

" He said ; then full before their sight 
Produced the beast, and lo! — 'twas white!' 1 

"He shook the fragment of his blade, 
And shouted — ' Victory.' " 

" The brightest youth in all the town, 
By far, was this same Master B — n." 

[Note.— The immoderate use of the dash is highly censurable: 
some writers use it almost constantly in the place of points that 
should, properly, be employed.] 

" The secret enemy, whose secret eye 
Stands sentinel — accuser — judge — and spy, 
The foe — the fool — the jealous and the vain — 
The envious, who but breathe in other's pain — 
Watch every fault." 

If the above were properly punctuated, a comma would 
take the place of each dash; and if we inclose the words, 

" whose secret eye 

Stands sentinel, accuser, judge and spy," 

in parentheses, or separate them from the rest of the 
sentence by dashes, the grammatical construction would 
be more plainly apparent. 

OF OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING, ETC. 

The hyphen (-) is used to divide words into syllables, 
and to connect compound words ; it is also employed at 
the end of a line when a word is broken, to show that 
the rest of it is at the commencement of the next line. 
A hyphen can never divide a syllable, but should be placed 
between the syllables of a broken word, etc. 

The caret (a) is used to show that some word or 
letter has been omitted or interlined. 

The section (§) is used to divide a discourse into 
parts ; it is also used as a mark of reference. 

The paragraph (^[) is used to mark the commence- 
ment of a new 'paragraph, when the division has not 
been otherwise made: the paragraph is used sometimes 
for reference. 

The accents are (') acute, ( v ) grave, and ( A ) cir- 
cumflex. 



BARRETT'S 

SERIES OF GRAMMARS, 

ENGLISH, LATIN, GREEK, GERMAN, SPANISH, 
AND FRENCH; 

In one Volume, Octavo, 572 pages ; 

With a Polyglot Arrangement of a part of the Gospel of 
St. Matthew; and 

An International and Commercial Dictionary of the 
English, German, Spanish, and French, 

Designed especially for the use of Families, Teachers, Clergymen, 
Business Men, and Private Learners generally. 



The above valuable work will be forwarded, post paid, to any 
part of the United States, on the receipt of §2.25 at the office of 
Hiixgins, Bradley & Dayton, publishers, No. 20 Washington street, 
Boston, Mass. Postage stamps may be sent for the odd change. 



Recommendations and Notices from the Press. 

From the Albany Academy. 

The system adopted by Mr. Barrett, for teaching the principles of Gram- 
mar, is, in our opinion, well calculated to promote an acquaintance with that 
important branch of education. 

T. ROMEYN BECK, A. M., M. D., 

Secretary of the Regents of the State of New York. 
P. BULLIONS, D. D., Prof. Lang., Albany Academy. 
S. CENTER, A. M., Prin. Albany Classical School. 
A. CRITTENTON, A. M., Prin. Brooklyn Fern. Acad. . 

Extract from a Report of the Committee on Literature of the Legislature 
of the State of New York. 
The undersigned, having examined Mr. Barrett's system of grammar, are 
of opinion that it is an improvement upon all methods heretofore adopted, 
and well calculated to facilitate the acquirement of a thorough knowledge 
of the languages on which it treats. We have also had the advantage of at- 
tending a public examination of his pupils, who had been instructed upon 
this^lan. Their very creditable performances afforded the most gratifying 
and conclusive evidences, not only of the excellence ofJlr. Barrett's theory, 
but of its eminence and unrivalled success in practice. 

LUTHER BRADISH, 

C. H. CARROLL. 
PETER GANSEVOORT, 

D. H. BISSELL, 
HENRY F. JONES. 



From the Boston Carpet Bag. 
Barrett's Grammar. — Reader, do not turn from this paragraph until you 
have read it. We wisli to ask your attention to a book recently issued by 
Solomon Barrett, which is calculated to overcome and simplify a thousand 
philological difficulties that have hitherto stood in the way of your children's 
progress. Their young heads and hearts have ached— as, doubtless, your 
own have — in conning over the complicated, and ofttirnes hopelessly unintel- 
ligible formulas, old and new systems of grammar, and any new step taken 
toward making the path of learning easier should be hailed as a blessing, 
and he who takes that step a* benefactor. The grammar comes to us en- 
dorsed by names of the highest eminence, and we freely add our humble tes- 
timonial to theirs, commending it as the simplest, and, consequently, the 
best system of grammar we have ever seen. It has not yet got into the 
schools, but we wish it might get there. 

From Professor Tenny, of Vermont University. 

Having spent a large fraction of life in pouring over lexicons, grammars, 
and other articles of etymological compost for fostering the growth of mind, 
we may assume to understand, to some extent, the merit of this class of 
works. All grammars have been constructed on false principles, or rather 
"without reference to principle. Grammarians seem to have forgotten tho 
evident fact, that language was a perfect thing antecedent to book-making, 
— which, " having no law," was "a law unto itself," and as effective a me- 
dium of thought in the hands of Noah, as in the hands of a Gesenius, a 
Buttman, or a Bullion. Their office was to explain, not to make language — 
not to dig artificial channels, but to survey that which mind hath worn, dur- 
ing centuries, for its own utterance. Mr. Barrett seems to have perceived 
this, and adopts a different course. Under his guidance the pupil forms 
his own grammar — having no rules except those which the immutable and w ell- 
defined relations of words and the universal laws of all language impose upon 
him. His system is simplicity itself and we are certain that it will save to 
all who use it, (as it might have done for us, had it appeared a few years 
sooner,) months of time which must otherwise be wasted in most irksome 
drudgery to no purpose. 

Mr. Barrett's method of analyzing the Greek and Latin verbs, is of tho 
highest value. With Thiersch's Tables and this work before him, a student 
must be stolid indeed, who can not master the Greek in a few months. This 
is no "Language without a Master," running wild among harmless children, 
— in short, no humbug : but a thing which we never expected to see — a new 
grammar which we could in conscience commend. 

BENJAMIN J. TENNY, A. M., 

of the University of Vermont. 

From the Boston Olive Branch. 

The author of these principles of grammar, has at length given to the 
public what it has long needed, a thorough simplified form of grammatical 
study, commended by teachers, classical students, and men who would not 
lightly, or without a thorough understanding, give their signatures to a sini- 
piy new thing. .There are in the book nearly six hundred pages, and we 
do not hesitate to say that a student, by careful study, can acquire within the 
covers of this grammar, an essential knowledge of English, Greek^and 
Latin. It does not profess, like some modern improvements, that the lan- 
guages can be learned in five lessons, or eight lessons, or twenty lessons, but 
it does what they fail to do ; it gives sound and permanent instruction, im- 
proving the memory, sharpening the reflective faculties, and by even a 
thorough reading only, enables one to acquire a more correct knowledge 
of Syntax, Etymology, and Prosody, than years of study by the old method. 

We commend this work to heads of families, most especially to thoso 



whose children study at home; for both parents and children will become 
purer speakers and writers, from the use of so excellent a book of instruc- 
tion. Besides these advantages, other languages can be learned with a 
facility that will seem astonishing to the student. 

From the Ohio Statesman. 

We wish briefly to call the attention of our readers to this important work, 
a copy of which has just been shown us. It is a capital thing, and without 
entering at this time upon any detailed description of it, we would merely 
say that it has received the approval of some of the greatest scholars in 
America, including the entire faculties of several colleges, -among whom are 
Dr. Nott, Alonzo Potter, Jared Sparks, Henry W. Longfellow, etc. Bayard 
Taylor and many other distinguished literary men have also added their 
names, in commendation of the book. We see also among the lists of sub- 
scribers, the names of John Van Buren, J. C. Calhoun, Winfield Scott, Dan- 
iel Webster, Millard Fillmore, and other notables. 

A Dictionary has been added to the last edition, containing all words of 
commercial importance or ordinary use in the four important modern 
tongues, English, German, Spanish, and French. 

From the Cincinnati Commercial. 

The author has accomplished something considerable, in making order 
amid the discord of the confusion of tongues. He has simplified the gram- 
mars of the languages named in the title page quoted above, and has 
brought together the correspondencies of the language with marvellous in- 
genuity, and has constructed a system which ^s the key to the various lan- 
guages. He has condensed and made available the grammar of grammars. 

From the Cincinnati Enquirer. 

This is one of the finest works of the dny. Professor Barrett stands be- 
fore the public in the light of a true philanthropist, for he has labored most 
earnestly to divest the study of language of innumerable technicalities, bor- 
rowed from the rigid rhetorical schools of classic antiquity. Avoiding the 
extremes of the ultra schoolmen, he has not descended on the other hand 
into the vulgar sphere of those elementary writers who have deprived the 
study of language of its dignity, without investing it with the characteristics 
of plainness and common sense. His object is to point out "the constructive 
relation which exists among the words in a sentence, and by virtue of which 
they become parts of speech, acquainting the student by a single effort, not 
only with the general principles of language, but leading him, by graceful 
and measured steps, into the characteristic idioms of each language. 

From the Boston Cultivator. 

Within the compass of about six hundred pages, the author presents the 
principles of six languages — the English, Latin, Greek, German, Spanish, 
and French. Instead of requiring the student, when he commences the 
study of grammar, to learn scores of definitions and rules, as many philolo- 
gists do, Mr. Barrett's plan is to have the scholar learn them only so fast as 
he is taught their application. He contends that every one of the eighty 
thousand words in the English language, when arranged in a sentence, will 
sustain one of the twenty-one relations, exhibited in a table prepared to aid the 
learner in determining the different parts of speech. The design of the au- 
thor is to simplify the study of the languages, and thus facilitate their ac- 
quisition ; and he has received the most flattering testimonials from those 
best qualified to judge respecting the work, that he has been highly Miccess- 
ful in the accomplishment of his object. 



From the Democratic Union, Watertoivn, iV. Y. 

This work is the result T>f years of most patient toil and research, and 
manifests more learning and real ability than any or all the other grammars 
yet printed. For instance, the idea that every fetter in a Latin word, after 
the root, has a positive and definite meaning, forming an indication to all 
the cases, moods, or tenses into which the word can be wrought, is certainly 
a novel one, and a suggestion that has doubtless caused many a learned 
professor to prick up his ears in astonishment. 

After an unusually thorough examination, we pronounce Barrett's Gram- 
mar the most complete work of the kind ever presented to the world, and a 
work that should.be in the hands of every student and scholar in the coun- 
try. And not only this, but it should be owned and studied by all those 
who have once been scholars, but who are now immersed, no matter how 
deeply, in the every-day affairs of life. We are not alone in our warm en- 
comiums. The work is recommended in the most flattering manner by such 
men as Beck, Bullions, Johnson, Terry, and hundreds of others. 

From the Northern Sentinel. 

The author has given us the key to the grammar of all languages that 
have ever been, or ever will be, by basing his work upon "the immutable 
principle of the relation which one word sustains to another;" and that ail 
beyond this, in learning a language, is a mere effort at remembering the 
meaning of the words holding these relations. It is a philosophy upon 
which no quarrel can be successfully waged ; but whether Professor Barrett 
has succeeded in the happiest method of treating the subject, we will leave 
professional philologists to decide. Grammarians are generally an opin- 
ionated set ot people — (not entirely alone in this peculiarity) — but Prof. 
Barrett has the in aril of not asking us to believe any thing he says in his 
book, without a. demonstration of its truth. The book is an excellent one to 
aid the student in his own study of the science — furnishing him with a key 
by means of which he ma}' enter the wide domain of philology. If he do 
not prosecute his work after entering, Prof. Barrett will not be to blame, for 
he furnishes in his own person an example of long, and patient, and we hOpo 
profitable devotion to the science. 

From the St. Lawrence Bepublican. 
Solomon Barrett has given many years of study and unremitting labor in 
getting up a good, intelligent, comprehensive grammar. It is a book that 
should be always at hand, in our odd leisure moments; for open it where 
we will, we are sure to find something new, instructive, and engaging. 

From the Christian Ambassador, Auburn, N. Y. 

Amid the diversities of grammars which have been published, none have 
yet been found suited to the public mind, until Mr. Barrett's appeared. It 
is a work calculated for the common people as well as for scholars. Any 
person, by close application a short time each clay, may become conversant 
in a good degree, at least, with any of the above mentioned languages. Mr. 
Barrett starts with the axiom that "one word kelongs to another." True, 
this is nothing new. But we have never seen it practically applied in the 
formation of a grammar, until it appeared in Mr. Barrett's. His table for 
the conjugation^ the Greek verb, for briefness and conciseness of manner, 
is excellent. 

From the Boston Daily Times. 

The author of these elementary principles of language has succeeded in 
clearing the science of grammar and language of its obstruse mysteries, and 
presenting it to the learner in a now and attractive dress. We consider it 
a work of jjrent practical utility and hope it may continue to receive a lib- 
eral support. y 

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